Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T12:57:09.215Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Imagining the Bob and Wheel

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 March 2022

Emma Maggie Solberg
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Medieval poetic forms defy classification, and yet medievalists trade in postmedieval formalist taxonomies—sometimes without reflecting on their history. This essay takes up the case of the “bob and wheel,” a rhyming flourish best known from Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Chaucer's Tale of Sir Thopas. This form, which has no given name or firmly set shape in the manuscripts in which it is found, was codified by the philologist Edwin Guest in 1838. This essay tracks the history of the interpretation of the bob and wheel across time, from the Middle Ages to the present day, and finds that it has been imagined as a tail, a game, and a cog in a machine. These phantasmic images have not only represented but also influenced readers’ experience of this form—reflecting and diffracting, bringing before-unseen patterns of meaning into focus and resonating with before-unheard synchronous frequencies.

Type
Essays
Information
PMLA , Volume 137 , Issue 1 , January 2022 , pp. 52 - 69
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Modern Language Association of America

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Katherine Churchill for asking the question that got me started and Arthur Bahr for showing me how to find the answer.

References

Works Cited

Bahr, Arthur. “Compulsory Figures.” ELH, vol. 84, no. 2, 2017, pp. 295–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bahr, Arthur, and Gillespie, Alexandra. “Medieval English Manuscripts: Form, Aesthetics, and the Literary Text.” The Chaucer Review, vol. 47, no. 4, 2013, pp. 346–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barad, Karen. Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning. Duke UP, 2007.Google Scholar
Bateman, Stephen. The Travayled Pilgrim Bringing Newes from All Partes of the World. London, 1569. Early English Books Online, login.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/books/trauayled-pylgrime-bringing-newes-all-partes/docview/2248574125/se-2?accountid=9681.Google Scholar
Behn, Aphra. The Roundheads. The Works of Aphra Behn, edited by Todd, Janet, vol. 6, Ohio State UP, 1996, pp. 361–424.Google Scholar
Benson, Larry D. Art and Tradition in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Rutgers UP, 1965.Google Scholar
Best, Stephen, and Marcus, Sharon. “Surface Reading: An Introduction.” Representations, vol. 108, no. 1, 2009, pp. 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Bob, N.” A Dictionary of the English Language, by Johnson, Samuel, London, 1785, p. 142.Google Scholar
“Bob, N. (1).” A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, edited by Murray, James A. H., vol. 1.3, London, 1887, pp. 957–58.Google Scholar
“Bob, N. (1).” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, 2021, www.oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=bob&_searchBtn=Search.Google Scholar
“Bobbin, N.” A Dictionary of the English Language, by Johnson, Samuel, London, 1785, p. 142.Google Scholar
“Bobbin, N. (1).” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/20821?rskey=jyOLsC&result=1#eid.Google Scholar
Brantley, Jessica. “Reading the Forms of Sir Thopas.” The Chaucer Review, vol. 47, no. 4, 2013, pp. 416–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breton, Nicholas. Choice, Chance, and Change: or, Conceites in Their Colours. London, 1606. Early English Books Online, login.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/books/choice-chance-change-conceites-their-colours/docview/2248565833/se-2?accountid=9681.Google Scholar
Brogan, T. V. F., and Hunter, Walt. “Tail Rhyme.” Greene et al., pp. 1408–09.Google Scholar
Burrow, John Anthony. Ricardian Poetry: Chaucer, Gower, Langland, and the Gawain Poet. Yale UP, 1971.Google Scholar
Cannon, Christopher. “Form.” Middle English, edited by Strohm, Paul, Oxford UP, 2007, pp. 177–90. Oxford Twenty-First Century Approaches to Literature.Google Scholar
Cannon, Christopher. The Making of Chaucer's English: A Study of Words. Cambridge UP, 1998.Google Scholar
Carroll, Lewis. Alice's Adventures under Ground. 1862–64, British Library, London, MS 46700.Google Scholar
Cavell, Megan. Weaving Words and Binding Bodies: The Poetics of Human Experience in Old English Literature. U of Toronto P, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaganti, Seeta. Strange Footing: Poetic Form and Dance in the Late Middle Ages. U of Chicago P, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Book of the Duchess. Chaucer, Riverside Chaucer, pp. 330–46.Google Scholar
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Parson's Tale. Chaucer, Riverside Chaucer, pp. 288–327.Google Scholar
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Riverside Chaucer. Edited by Benson, Larry D., 3rd ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1987.Google Scholar
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Tale of Sir Thopas. Chaucer, Riverside Chaucer, pp. 213–17.Google Scholar
Chickering, Howell. “Stanzaic Closure and Linkage in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” The Chaucer Review, vol. 32, no. 1, 1997, pp. 1–31.Google Scholar
Chism, Christine. Alliterative Revivals. U of Pennsylvania P, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clegg Hyer, Maren. “Aldhelm and Word-Weaving as Metaphor in Old English and Anglo-Latin Literature.” Textiles, Text, Intertext: Essays in Honour of Gale R. Owen-Crocker, edited by Hyer, Clegg and Frederick, Jill, Boydell and Brewer, 2016, pp. 121–38.Google Scholar
Coleman, Joyce. “Strange Rhyme: Prosody and Nationhood in Robert Mannyng's ‘Story of England.’” Speculum, vol. 78, no. 4, 2003, pp. 1214–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. “To Derwent Coleridge: The Chief and Most Common Metrical Feet Expressed in Corresponding Metre.” The Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, vol. 16.1.2, edited by Mays, J. C. C., Princeton UP, 2002, pp. 807–08.Google Scholar
Condren, Edward. “Numerical Proportion as Aesthetic Strategy in the Pearl Manuscript.” Viator: Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol. 30, 1999, pp. 285–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Condren, Edward. The Numerical Universe of the Gawain-Pearl Poet. UP of Florida, 2002.Google Scholar
Crane, Susan. The Performance of Self: Ritual, Clothing, and Identity during the Hundred Years War. U of Pennsylvania P, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alighieri, Dante. De vulgari eloquentia: Dante's Book of Exile. Edited and translated by Shapiro, Marianne, U of Nebraska P, 1990.Google Scholar
Dimock, Wai Chee. “A Theory of Resonance.” PMLA, vol. 112, no. 5, Oct. 1997, pp. 1060–71.Google Scholar
“Doggerel, Adj. and N.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/56448?rskey=QEwIeu&result=1#eid.Google Scholar
“Drast | Drest, N.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/57514?redirectedFrom=drast&.Google Scholar
Duggan, H. N. “Meter, Stanza, Vocabulary, Dialect.” A Companion to the Gawain-Poet, edited by Brewer, Derek and Gibson, Jonathan, D. S. Brewer, 1997, pp. 221–42.Google Scholar
Edwards, Richard. Damon and Pithias. The Oxford Anthology of Tudor Drama, edited by Walker, Greg, Oxford UP, 2014, pp. 337–98.Google Scholar
Edwards, Richard. Damon and Pithias. The Works of Richard Edwards: Politics, Poetry, and Performance in Sixteenth-Century England, edited by King, Ros, Manchester UP, 2001, pp. 109–84.Google Scholar
Epp, Garrett P. J., editor. The Second Shepherds’ Play. The Towneley Plays. Medieval Institute Publications, 2018, pp. 132–58.Google Scholar
Gallo, Ernest. The Poetria Nova and Its Sources in Early Rhetorical Doctrine. Mouton, 1971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gayk, Shannon, and Nelson, Ingrid. “Introduction: Genre as Form-of-Life.” Exemplaria, vol. 27, nos. 1–2, May 2015, pp. 3–17.Google Scholar
Gaylord, Alan. “Chaucer's Dainty ‘Dogerel’: The ‘Elvyssh’ Prosody of Sir Thopas.” Studies in the Age of Chaucer, vol. 1, 1979, pp. 83–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geoffrey of Vinsauf. Poetria nova. Translated by Nims, Margaret F., 2nd ed., Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2010.Google Scholar
Greene, Roland, et al. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th ed., Princeton UP, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guest, Edwin. A History of English Rhythms. Edited by Skeat, Walter W., London, 1882.Google Scholar
Harris, Jennifer. “William Morris and the Middle Ages.” William Morris and the Middle Ages, edited by Banham, Joanna and Harris, , Manchester UP, 1984, pp. 1–16.Google Scholar
Heng, Geraldine. “Feminine Knots and the Other Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” PMLA, vol. 106, no. 3, May 1991, pp. 500–14.Google Scholar
Henkell, John. “Metrical Feet on the Road of Poetry: Foot Puns and Literary Polemic in Tibullus.” Classical World, vol. 107, no. 4, 2014, pp. 451–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holsinger, Bruce. “‘Historical Context’ in Historical Context: Surface, Depth, and the Making of the Text.” New Literary History, vol. 42, 2011, pp. 593–614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hooke, Robert. Micrographia, or, Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. London, 1665. Early English Books Online, login.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/books/micrographia-some-physiological-descriptions/docview/2240972951/se-2?accountid=9681.Google Scholar
Howes, L. L. “Bob and Wheel.” Greene et al., p. 152.Google Scholar
Huygens, Christiaan. Horologium oscillatorium; sive, De motu pendulorum. Paris, 1673. HathiTrust Digital Library, catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/102448786.Google Scholar
“Isochronism.” Greene et al., p. 733–34.Google Scholar
“Isochronous, Adj. (1).” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/100031?redirectedFrom=isochronous#eid.Google Scholar
Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary of the English Language. London, 1785.Google Scholar
Jonassen, Frederick B. “Elements of the Traditional Drama of England in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” Viator, vol. 17, 1986, pp. 221–54.Google Scholar
Jonson, Ben. The Gypsies Metamorphosed: A Variorum Edition. Edited by Cole, George Watson, Century, 1931.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kao, Wan-Chuan. “Cute Chaucer.” Exemplaria, vol. 30, no. 2, 2018, pp. 147–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karras, Ruth Mazo. “‘This Skill in a Woman Is by No Means to Be Despised’: Weaving and the Gender Division of Labor in the Middle Ages.” Medieval Fabrications: Dress, Textiles, Clothwork, and Other Cultural Imaginings, edited by Jane Burns, E., Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, pp. 89–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerby-Fulton, Kathryn. “Major Middle English Poets and Manuscript Studies, 1300–1450.” Opening Up Middle English Manuscripts: Literary and Visual Approaches, edited by Kerby-Fulton, et al. , Cornell UP, 2012, pp. 39–64.Google Scholar
Kerby-Fulton, Kathryn, and Klein, Andrew. “Rhymed Alliterative Verse in Mise en Page Transition: Two Cases in English Poetic Hybridity.” The Medieval Literary: Beyond Form, edited by Meyer-Lee, Robert J. and Sanok, Catherine, D. S. Brewer, 2018, pp. 87–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, Hugh. The Bob-Wheel and Allied Stanza Forms in Middle English and Middle Scots Poetry. 1976. North Texas State U, PhD dissertation.Google Scholar
Kittredge, George Lyman. “Guillaume De Machaut and The Book of the Duchess.” PMLA, old series, vol. 30, no. 1, 1915, pp. 1–24.Google Scholar
Kruger, Kathryn Sullivan. Weaving the Word: The Metaphorics of Weaving and Female Textual Production. Susquehanna UP, 2002.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, Peter. A Course in Phonetics. 2nd ed., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982.Google Scholar
Ladha, Hassanaly. “From Bayt to Stanza: Arabic Khayāl and the Advent of Italian Vernacular Poetry.” Exemplaria, vol. 32, no. 1, 2020, pp. 1–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lakoff, George, and Johnson, Mark. Metaphors We Live By. U of Chicago P, 1980.Google Scholar
Lakoff, George, and Turner, Mark. More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. U of Chicago P, 1989.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Leal, Adj.and Adv.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/106665?rskey=yaggLE&result=1#eid.Google Scholar
Lee, John S. The Medieval Clothier. Boydell and Brewer, 2018.Google Scholar
“Lēl, Adj. and N.” Middle English Dictionary. U of Michigan P, 2021, quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED25084/track?counter=1&search_id=8644658.Google Scholar
L'Estrange, Roger. Fables of Aesop and Other Eminent Mythologists with Morals and Reflections. London, 1692. Early English Books Online, login.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/books/fables-æsop-other-eminent-mythologists-with/docview/2241007372/se-2?accountid=9681.Google Scholar
L'Estrange, Robert. Otes His Case, Character, Person, and Plot: His Laying of Things Together. London, 1685. Early English Books Online, login.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.bowdoin.edu/books/otes-his-case-character-person-plot-laying-things/docview/2240862543/se-2?accountid=9681.Google Scholar
Levine, Caroline. Forms: Whole, Rhythm, Hierarchy, Network. Princeton UP, 2017.Google Scholar
“Loken, V. (1).” Middle English Dictionary. U of Michigan P, 2021, quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED25943/track?counter=1&search_id=8644658.Google Scholar
“Lord that lenest us lyf.” The Complete Harley 2253 Manuscript, edited by Fein, Susannah Greer, vol. 2, Medieval Institute Publications, 2014, pp. 108–11.Google Scholar
Mannyng, Robert of Brunne. The Chronicle. Edited by Sullens, Idelle, Binghampton UP, 1996. Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies.Google Scholar
Martin, Meredith. The Rise and Fall of Meter: Poetry and English National Culture, 1860–1930. Princeton UP, 2012.Google Scholar
Meyer-Lee, Robert J., and Sanok, Catherine. “The Literary through—or beyond?—Form.” Introduction. The Medieval Literary: Beyond Form, edited by Sanok, Meyer-Lee and, D. S. Brewer, 2018, pp. 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milton, John. “The Verse.” John Milton: Complete Poems and Major Prose, edited by Hughes, Merritt Y., Macmillan, 1957, p. 210.Google Scholar
Munro, John H. “Textiles.” Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographic Guide, edited by Mantello, F. A. C. and Grigg, A. G., Catholic U of America P, 1999, pp. 474–84.Google Scholar
Nafde, Aditi. “Laughter Lines: Reading the Layouts of the Tale of Sir Thopas.” Pecia, vol. 16, 2015, pp. 143–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nitze, W. A. “Is the Green Knight Story a Vegetation Myth?” Modern Philology, vol. 33, 1936, pp. 351–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Opie, Iona, and Opie, Peter. Children's Games in Street and Playground. Clarendon, 1969.Google Scholar
Owst, Gerald Robert. Literature and Pulpit in Medieval England. Cambridge UP, 1933.Google Scholar
Parry, Linda. William Morris Textiles. Viking Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Patmore, Coventry. Essay on English Metrical Law: A Critical Edition with Commentary. Edited by Roth, Mary Augustine. 1961. Catholic U of America, PhD dissertation.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Derek. Old English and Middle English Poetry. Routledge, 1977.Google Scholar
Pound, Ezra. The Pisan Cantos. Edited by Sieburth, Richard, New Directions, 2003.Google Scholar
Prins, Yopie. “Historical Poetics, Dysprosody, and ‘The Science of English Verse.’” PMLA, vol. 123, no. 1, Jan. 2008, pp. 229–34.Google Scholar
Prins, Yopie. “What Is Historical Poetics?” MLQ, vol. 77, no. 1, 2016, pp. 13–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purdie, Rhiannon. Anglicising Romance: Tail-Rhyme and Genre in Medieval English Literature. D. S. Brewer, 2008.Google Scholar
Purdie, Rhiannon. “The Implications of Manuscript Layout in Chaucer's Tale of Sir Thopas.” Forum for Modern Language Studies, vol. 41, no. 3, 2005, pp. 263–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putter, Ad. “Adventures in the Bob and Wheel Tradition: Narratives and Manuscripts.” Medieval Romance and Material Culture, edited by Perkins, Nicholas, Brewer, D. S., 2015, pp. 147–64.Google Scholar
Randall, Lilian M. C. “Games and the Passion in Pucelle's Hours of Jeanne D’Évreux.” Speculum, vol. 47, no. 2, 1972, pp. 246–57.Google Scholar
Randall, Richard H. “Frog in the Middle.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, vol. 16, no. 10, 1958, pp. 269–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riddy, Felicity. “Jewels in Pearl.” A Companion to the Gawain-Poet, edited by Brewer, Derek and Gibson, Jonathan, D. S. Brewer, 1997, pp. 143–56.Google Scholar
Rose-Steel, Tamsyn. “Church, Court, and Tavern: Games and Social Hierarchy in Some Medieval Motets.” Games and Gaming in Medieval Literature, edited by Patterson, Serina, Palgrave, 2015, pp. 105–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saintsbury, George. A History of English Prosody from the Twelfth Century to the Present Day. Vol. 1, Macmillan, 1906.Google Scholar
Scheid, John, and Svenbro, Jesper. The Craft of Zeus: Myths of Weaving and Fabric. Translated by Volk, Carol, Harvard UP, 1996.Google Scholar
Seal, Samantha Katz. Father Chaucer: Generating Authority in the Canterbury Tales. Oxford UP, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shakespeare, William. Much Ado about Nothing. Edited by Greenblatt, Stephen, 2nd ed., W. W. Norton, 2008. The Norton Shakespeare.Google Scholar
Simpson, James. “‘Gaufred, Deere Maister Soverain’: Chaucer and Rhetoric.” The Oxford Handbook of Chaucer, edited by Akbari, Suzanne Conklin and Simpson, , Oxford UP, 2020, pp. 126–43.Google Scholar
Singer, Charles, et al. A History of Technology. Vol. 2, Clarendon Press, 1956.Google Scholar
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript: Pearl, Cleanness, Patience, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, edited by Andrew, Malcolm and Waldron, Ronald, 5th ed., U of Exeter P, 2007, pp. 207–300.Google Scholar
Sir Tristrem. Lancelot of the Laik and Sir Tristrem. Edited by Lupack, Alan, Medieval Institute Publications, 1994, pp. 156–256.Google Scholar
Skeat, Walter W. Notes to the Canterbury Tales. The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, edited by Skeat, , vol. 5, London, 1890.Google Scholar
“Somer Sonday.” Alliterative Poetry of the Later Middle Ages: An Anthology, edited by Thorlac Turville-Petre, Catholic U of America P, 1989, pp. 140–47.Google Scholar
SparkNotes. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Spark Publishing, 2002.Google Scholar
Spearing, A. C. Medieval to Renaissance English Poetry. Cambridge UP, 1985.Google Scholar
Speirs, John. “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” Scrutiny, vol. 16, 1949, pp. 274–300.Google Scholar
Sponsler, Claire. “Text and Textile: Lydgate's Tapestry Poems.” Medieval Fabrications: Dress, Textiles, Clothwork, and Other Cultural Imaginings, edited by Jane Burns, E., Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, pp. 19–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanbury, Sarah. “The Gawain-Poet.” The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Literature, 1100–1500, edited by Scanlon, Larry, Cambridge UP, 2009, pp. 139–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanley, E. G. “The Use of Bob-Lines in ‘Sir Thopas.’” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, vol. 73, no. 1, 1972, pp. 417–26.Google Scholar
“Steken, V.” Middle English Dictionary, U of Michigan P, 2021, quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED42749/track?counter=1&search_id=8644658.Google Scholar
“Tail, N.” Middle English Dictionary, U of Michigan P, 2021, quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED44387/track?counter=1&search_id=8644658.Google Scholar
Tenga, Angela. “Seeds of Horror: Sacrifice and Supremacy in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, The Wicker Man, and Children of the Corn.” Plant Horror: Approaches to the Monstrous Vegetal in Fiction and Film, edited by Keetley, Dawn and Tenga, , Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016, pp. 55–72.Google Scholar
Tolkien, J. R. R. “Appendix on Verse-Forms.” Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and Sir Orfeo, edited by Tolkien, Christopher, translated by Gordon, E. V. and Tolkien, J. R. R., Houghton Mifflin, 1975, pp. 142–48.Google Scholar
Tomasula, Steve. “Code Poetry and New-Media Literature.” The Routledge Companion to Experimental Literature, edited by Bray, Joe et al. , Routledge, 2012, pp. 483–96.Google Scholar
Turville-Petre, Thorlac. “‘Summer Sunday,’ ‘De Tribus Regibus Mortuis,’ and ‘The Awntyrs off Arthure’: Three Poems in the Thirteen-Line Stanza.” The Review of English Studies, vol. 25, no. 97, 1974, pp. 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Twycross, Meg, and Carpenter, Sarah. Masks and Masking in Medieval and Early Tudor England. Ashgate, 2002.Google Scholar
Vincent, Clare, and Leopold, Jan Hendrik. “Time and Again.” European Clocks and Watches in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, edited by Vincent, et al. , Yale UP, 2015, pp. 9–15.Google Scholar
Weiskott, Eric. “Before Prosody: Early English Poetics in Practice and Theory.” MLQ, vol. 77, no. 4, 2016, pp. 473–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Victoria L. “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and the Fourteenth-Century Interlude.” Text and Matter: New Critical Perspectives of the Pearl-Poet, edited by Blanch, Robert J. et al. , Whitson Publishing, 1991, pp. 229–41.Google Scholar
Weston, Jessie. The Legend of Sir Gawain: Studies upon Its Original Scope and Significance. David Nutt, 1897.Google Scholar
Winny, James. “The Fortunate Fall of Sir Gawain: The Typology of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, by Victor Yelverton Haines.” ESC: English Studies in Canada, vol. 10, no. 3, 1984, pp. 357–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zayaruznaya, Anna. The Monstrous New Art: Divided Form in the Late Medieval Motet. Cambridge UP, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar