Mineral nutrient deficiencies are a worldwide problem that is directly correlated with poverty and food insecurity. The most common of these is iron deficiency; more than one-third of the world's population suffer from iron deficiency-induced anaemia, 80% of which are in developing countries. The consequences of iron deficiency include increased mortality and morbidity rates, diminished cognitive abilities in children and reduced labour productivity, which in turn stagnates national development. The developed world has made tremendous success in alleviating nutrient deficiencies through dietary diversification, food product fortification, improved public health care and supplementation. In developing countries, these strategies are often expensive and difficult to sustain, especially in rural areas. The rural poor typically consume what they grow and are dependent upon a small number of staple crops for the vast majority of their nutrition. Therefore, genetic improvement of staple crops (biofortification) is the most cost-effective and sustainable solution to this global health problem. In this study, we describe a strategy to enhance iron nutritional quality in maize using a human cell culture (Caco-2)-based bioassay as a phenotyping tool to guide genetic analysis of the trait. We also report validation of this approach using an animal feeding study.

Extensive research has been conducted on the characterization of hundreds of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) cultivars worldwide. However, the population genetics of date palms has never been studied. In this study, we collected 200 individuals from 19 populations of different geographical locations in Sudan. The collection sites were grouped according to the type of dates (date palm fruits) that dominates in the area. Ten microsatellite markers were used to investigate the genetic diversity within and among populations and the correlation between the genetic and geographical distances. The tested microsatellite markers showed a high level of polymorphism. A total of 261 alleles were detected at the ten loci. The overall mean value of fixation indices equalled − 0.163, which shows the presence of excess heterozygosity. However, the χ2 tests conducted for every locus in each population indicated no significant deviation from the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. The analyses of molecular variance exhibited that about 95% of the total genetic variation existed within populations, while significant differentiation within the type groups could be detected. Although significant isolation by distance (r2 = 0.552, P < 0.05) was detected by a Mantel test, it seems that the spatial effect has become complicated as a result from the exchange and introduction of different kinds of plant materials by date palm growers and traders, as well as seed dispersal. This complexity was clearly apparent in the weak clustering relationships among most of the tested populations.

The wheat landraces collected by Dr Hitoshi Kihara et al. from Afghanistan, the place of secondary origin of wheat, are an untapped genetic resource for mining novel alleles. In this study, approximately 400 landraces were collected from seven agroecological zones and characterized using diversity array technology and single-nucleotide polymorphism markers, as well as diagnostic molecular markers at important loci controlling vernalization (Vrn), photoperiod response (Ppd), grain colour (R), leaf rust (Lr), yellow rust (Yr), stem rust (Sr) and Fusarium head blight (Fhb). A genome-wide marker array revealed a large amount of genetic diversity among the landraces, 53% of which were winter types, 43% were either spring types or facultative and 4% were either unknown or had Vrn-A1c – a rare spring allele that needs to be confirmed with additional genotyping and phenotyping. At Ppd, 97% of the lines carried a photosensitive allele. In the case of grain colour, classification based on dominant or recessive allelic combinations revealed that approximately 39% of the population is characterized by white grain. Four gene-specific markers that were targeted to identify loci for rust and Fhb resistance enabled us to identify 17 unique landraces with known resistance genes.

Genebanks explore new partnerships with farmers and other user groups to provide smallholder farmers in Africa better access to crop diversity for improved nutrition, climate change adaptation and agricultural diversification. This paper shows how the World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) genebank of traditional African vegetables and its partners distributed over 42,000 seed kits containing over 183,000 vegetable seed samples from 2013 to 2017 to smallholder farmers in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. The seed kits contained seed samples of promising accessions and open-pollinated breeding lines of traditional African vegetables, and to a lower degree of tomato, Capsicum pepper and soybean, usually enough to plant in a home garden. We identified four research questions to better understand the role of vegetable seed kits in strengthening local seed systems, impact on local vegetable diversity, improving human nutrition and supporting climate-resilient agriculture. As formal seed systems expand their reach, the genebank's role to supply vegetable diversity to public and private breeding programmes becomes more important. To optimize supply of vegetable diversity, the WorldVeg genebank of traditional African vegetables continues working with partners in both formal and local seed systems.

The grain of modern wheat cultivars has a significantly lower mineral content, including the content of copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, selenium and zinc. For this reason cereal breeders, are constantly searching for new genetic sources of minerals that are essential in human nutrition. Triticum polonicum, which is grown on a small scale in Spain, southern Italy, Algeria, Ethiopia and warm regions of Asia, deserves special attention in this context. The micronutrient and macronutrient content of T. polonicum versus T. durum and T. aestivum was compared in this study. Polish wheat grain was characterized by the significantly highest content of phosphorus (4.55 g/kg), sulphur (1.82 g/kg), magnesium (1.42 g/kg), zinc (49.5 mg/kg), iron (39.1 mg/kg) and boron (0.56 mg/kg) as well as a low content of aluminium (only 1.04 mg/kg). The macronutrient profile of most T. polonicum lines differed completely from that of common wheat and durum wheat. The principal component analysis supported discrimination of seven Polish wheat lines with a particularly beneficial micronutrient profile (P2, P3, P5, P7, P9, P22 and P25). These lines were characterized by the highest content of copper, iron and zinc, as well as the lowest concentrations of strontium, aluminium and barium which are undesirable in food products. The above lines can be potentially applied as source materials for breeding new wheat varieties. The results of this study indicate that Polish wheat could be used in genetic biofortification of durum wheat and common wheat.

To understand the effect of different farming systems on the dynamics of diversity of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) crop, genetic structure of widely used landraces and modern varieties collected from two contrasting agroecosystems, in eastern Sudan and western Kenya, were analysed with 16 polymorphic microsatellite markers. A total of 1104 accessions, grouped into 46 samples from individual farmers, were genotyped. Cluster analysis of the samples from the two countries displayed contrasting patterns. Most strikingly, differently named landraces from western Kenya formed widely overlapping clusters, indicating weak genetic differentiation, while those from eastern Sudan formed clearly distinguishable groups. Similarly, samples of the modern variety from Sudan displayed high homogeneity, whereas the most common modern variety from western Kenya was very heterogeneous. The high degree of fragmentation of farmlands of western Kenya, coupled with planting of different sorghum varieties in the same fields, increases the likelihood of inter-variety gene flow. This may explain the low genetic differentiation between the differently named landraces and heterogeneity of the modern variety from western Kenya. This study highlights the important role of farmers in shaping the genetic variation of their crops and provides population parameter estimates allowing forecasting of the fate of ‘modern’ germplasm (conventional or genetically modified) when introduced into subsistence farming systems.

Sets of microsatellites extracted from both a genomic library (gSSRs) and from expressed sequence tag sequence (eSSRs), and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were applied to assess the levels of genetic diversity in a sample of 70 barley accessions, originating from 28 countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Europe. The eSSR assays detected a mean of 9.5 alleles per locus, and the gSSRs only 5.7 alleles per locus, but the polymorphism information content values for the two assay types were indistinguishable. Strong and statistically significant correlations were observed between the eSSR and gSSR (r = 0.86, P < 0.05), the eSSR and SNP (r = 0.74, P < 0.05) and the gSSR and SNP genotypes (r = 0.67, P < 0.05). Accessions originating from the Middle East and Asia had the highest levels of genetic diversity. Pairwise genetic similarity ranged from 0.16 to 0.87 (mean 0.43), indicating that the sample was genetically diverse. When clustered on the basis of genotype, Asian and African accessions tended to be grouped together, but those originating from the Middle East were not concentrated in any particular cluster.

Among domesticated traits, pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) caused by the early breakage of dormancy leads to severe economic losses. Therefore, regulating PHS is important for cereal crop improvement against changes in climate. In this study, we surveyed naturally occurring variations in seed germination in diverse rice germplasm for the available resources of this trait, and investigated the changes of abscisic acid (ABA) levels during grain development by the distinguished PHS-resistant groups. We discovered wide variations in germination among the 205 rice accessions examined and found that 90 accessions are resistant (germination <20%) to PHS. Tropical and subtropical accessions, which are subjected to long wet periods, are more resistant to PHS than the other accessions. We detected an increase in germination of detached seeds from the panicle compared with intact seeds in panicle at harvesting time. This might be attributed to a weakening of the mechanical barrier that prevents water imbibition and radical emergence. ABA levels were maximal at 10 d after flowering and decreased thereafter. Interestingly, PHS-susceptible accessions maintained higher or similar ABA levels compared with PHS-resistant accessions, suggesting that the key factors for seed dormancy and its breakage are ABA perception and signal transduction rather than total ABA content. The diversity of germination ability detected in this study could be sustainably used for crop improvement and to help unveil the genetic and physiological basis of this quantitative trait.

Scientific research has always been concerned with aspects of human health. There are several systems of medicines besides the globally accepted allopathy, which are based on compounds originating from natural products. Recent research has been centred around validation of the traditional knowledge on medicinal products. The traditional systems in India, China and forklore medicines in other parts of the world have indicated the potential of natural products consist of various chemical compounds that could be used as drugs. The search for drugs against five major dreadful diseases namely, cancer, AIDS, heart disease, diabetes and pulmonary disorders that attack the present day human from natural products has been in progress for some time. Microbes, plants and animals are the sources of natural products. In the past five decades, the research on bioactive chemicals from marine algae has been incited and several compounds with biological activity were isolated from algae. Generally, these are secondary metabolites produced for chemical defence against the biotic pressure of predators, consumers and epibionts. These potential drugs are now attracting considerable attention from the pharmaceutical industries due to the necessity of identifying substances that could be utilized for novel therapeutic purposes. Several compounds such as alginate, carrageenans, sulphated and halogenated polysachcharise and other derivatives have been shown to provide drugs that could be antiviral, anticancer and antimicrobial. The present account is on the potential of marine macro-algae for medicinally important products.

Genealogical data have been used very widely to construct indices with which to examine the contribution of plant breeding programmes to the maintenance and enhancement of genetic resources. In this paper we use such indices to examine changes in the genetic diversity of the winter wheat crop in England and Wales between 1923 and 1995. We find that, except for one period characterized by the dominance of imported varieties, the genetic diversity of the winter wheat crop has been remarkably stable. This agrees with many studies of plant breeding programmes elsewhere. However, underlying the stability of the winter wheat crop is accelerating varietal turnover without any significant diversification of the genetic resources used. Moreover, the changes we observe are more directly attributable to changes in the varietal shares of the area under winter wheat than to the genealogical relationship between the varieties sown. We argue, therefore, that while genealogical indices reflect how well plant breeders have retained and exploited the resources with which they started, these indices suffer from a critical limitation. They do not reflect the proportion of the available range of genetic resources which has been effectively utilized in the breeding programme: complex crosses of a given set of varieties can yield high indices, and yet disguise the loss (or non-utilization) of a large proportion of the available genetic diversity.

About 40% of the global arable land is acidic, and in India, majority of these acidic soils are in the north-eastern region. Soil acidity leads to high phosphorus (P) fixation that causes P deficiency; therefore, there is a need to characterize the identified potential donors for acidic soils for P-deficiency tolerance. We evaluated rice genotypes for nucleotide variation in two loci reported for low P tolerance, namely PSTOL1 and PupK20-2. Sequence comparison for PSTOL1 revealed two distinct haplotypes. Genotypes with higher P uptake such as LR 19 and LR 23 had the desired Kasalath-type haplotype, whereas those with lower P uptake such as UR 29 and LR 39 showed a mixed haplotype. A total of four novel nucleotide variations were observed in 3′-UTR (untranslated region). Sequencing of PupK20-2 revealed a total of 28 SNPs and one insertion–deletion, of which 24 SNPs were novel. The discovery of novel SNPs across both PSTOL1 and PupK20-2 suggests the existence of novel haplotypes in genotypes adapted to acidic soil conditions. We reported for the first time the characterization of the donors being used in breeding programmes for acidic soils at the molecular level. The implications in breeding programmes are discussed.

A well-documented karyo-morphological analysis has been presented in one unexplored cultivar of Capsicum annuum L., collected from South Sikkim, India, to determine the chromosome number. This report confirms that the cultivar contains 2n = 48 chromosomes, which are not produced through self-duplication. More studies are required to determine its actual taxonomic position and genetic relationship with other cultivars and species. This cultivar of C. annuum provides a new, unexplored genetic resource with a high chromosome number.

Crop wild relatives (CWR) are wild plant taxa that have broader genetic diversity than crops hence they are an excellent source of genes and traits to improve crops. The potential value of CWR for agriculture and the need to protect these plants in their natural habitats (in situ) have been recognized globally. South Africa has the richest temperate flora globally, and the checklist of food and fodder CWR for the country considers 258 taxa to be high priority for conservation. A systematic conservation planning approach was used for spatial prioritization for in situ conservation actions for CWR. Protected areas were categorized on the basis of their CWR richness. The Kruger National Park has the highest number of CWR (66 taxa), but most of these are widespread and common. Fifty-seven protected areas, most of which are in the Western and Eastern Cape fynbos, are irreplaceable for protecting a number of endemic and threatened CWR. For priority CWR not adequately represented in existing protected areas, a spatial plan was developed to identify the smallest area that aligns with existing targets for the National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy, that are not transformed in terms of habitat, and that are projected to be climate change resilient. Mechanisms for ensuring uptake of the recommendations for the in situ conservation of CWR have been documented in a National Strategy and Action Plan and these include making information and data available and promoting the inclusion of CWR in current management and monitoring activities.

The N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry (VIR) holds and maintains collections of various crop plants among the largest and oldest worldwide. Among them, small berry trees have gained attention because of their potential for human health. Small berries, usually containing various valuable compounds such as vitamins or antioxidants in significant quantities, could be used for easily improving the human diet. Subsets of VIR collections of raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) and blue honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea L.) were investigated for genetic diversity. Ninety-five raspberry accessions were genotyped with eight nuclear simple-sequence repeat (microsatellite) markers. Results indicated a fair level of genetic diversity, but also a structure of three main groups in the collection. Blue honeysuckle accessions were genotyped with five intersimple-sequence repeat markers, yielding more than 1100 polymorphic fragments across the 194 accessions. Statistical analysis of these data showed that the subspecies level was key in explaining blue honeysuckle diversity. This study shows that the collections constitute important resources that could be used for either direct consumption goals or breeding of new cultivars. Results may also be used to establish recommendations for efficient conservation of these genetic resources.

The U genome of Aegilops umbellulata is an important basic genome of genus Aegilops. Direct gene transfer from Ae. umbellulata into wheat is feasible but not easy. Triticum turgidum–Ae. umbellulata amphidiploids can act as bridges to circumvent obstacles involving direct gene transfer. Seven T. turgidum–Ae. umbellulata amphidiploids were produced via unreduced gametes for spontaneous doubling of chromosomes of triploid T. turgidum–Ae. umbellulata F1 hybrid plants. Seven pairs of U chromosomes of Ae. umbellulata were distinguished by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) probes pSc119.2/(AAC)5 and pTa71. Polymorphic FISH signals were detected in three (1U, 6U and 7U) of seven U chromosomes of four Ae. umbellulata accessions. The chromosomes of the tetraploid wheat parents could be differentiated by probes pSc119.2 and pTa535, and identical FISH signals were observed among the three accessions. All the parental chromosomes of the amphidiploids could be precisely identified by probe combinations pSc119.2/pTa535 and pTa71/(AAC)5. The T. turgidum–Ae. umbellulata amphidiploids possess valuable traits for wheat improvement, such as strong tillering ability, stripe rust resistance and seed size-related traits. These materials can be used as media in gene transfers from Ae. umbellulata into wheat.

Iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) contents in hexaploid wheat are very low and are further reduced because of the removal of micronutrient-rich bran of wheat grains during milling and processing. Therefore, hexaploid wheat, its wild species and wheat–Aegilops kotschyi substitution lines were evaluated to identify the genome(s) carrying gene(s) for high Fe and Zn concentrations in bran and endosperm fractions of grains. It is reflected from the results that Triticum monococcum (acc. W463) may serve as a promising donor for biofortification of Fe, and Aegilops speltoides (acc. 3804) may serve as a promising donor for biofortification of Zn in the endosperm of cultivated wheat. Further, among the three wheat–Ae. kotschyi substitution lines, the higher concentration of Fe and Zn in endosperm fraction was observed in BC2F4 63-2-13-1. The work on precise transfer of useful gene(s) from 7Uk chromosome of this line is in progress to reduce linkage drag.

Barnyard millet accessions (257) were inoculated with grain smut spores at anthesis stage during 2003. Seed produced on inoculated ear heads was sown in 2005 and resulting plants evaluated for ten morphological traits and grain smut incidence. The accessions were grouped into seven groups based on origin. The lowest mean grain smut incidence was recorded for advance breeding lines, while highest mean value was observed for Uttarakhand group. Genes determining grain yield and susceptibility to grain smut were at most loosely linked as evidenced by non-significant correlations between grain smut incidence and grain yield in six out of seven groups as well as whole collection. Smut resistance along with grain yield in barnyard millet can be enhanced by adopting proper breeding strategy; therefore, in segregating generations, selection should be carried out for both characters simultaneously.

Rice landraces have been developed through artificial selection imposed by farmers during the long-term domestication process. Although the global rice diversity is well characterized, few studies have conducted an in-depth analysis of genetic diversity on a local scale. In India, there are many locally adapted non-Basmati aromatic rice landraces in which the pace of improvement is slow, despite their high economic values. The aromatic and quality rice landraces of Manipur, locally called Chakhao (delicious), are important, considering their high economic and cultural values. To conserve and encourage improvement of these landraces, we collected Chakhao accessions from eight districts of Manipur. The aim of the current study was to investigate the level of genetic diversity and structure of 37 Chakhao landraces based on genotyping with 47 microsatellite markers. The genetic diversity analysis revealed high gene diversity (0.673) within the Chakhao population, with values ranging from 0.303 (Poireiton) to 0.471 (mixed Chakhao). The Chakhao rice accessions could be divided into six subgroups based on genetic structure analyses. The population structure derived from the STRUCTURE analysis largely correlated with the farmers' classification of Chakhao landraces. The results of genetic diversity analyses and the indigenous knowledge of the names and use of Chakhao landraces would facilitate the conservation and utilization of this unique genetic resource.

Data on intra-specific variability for seed oil content, physical characteristics and fatty acid composition in Cucurbita moschata and Cucurbita argyrosperma are lacking in the scientific literature. We examined 528 genebank accessions of C. moschata and 166 accessions of C. argyrosperma – which included members of both subsp. argyrosperma and subsp. sororia – for seed oil content, oil physical characteristics and fatty acid composition. The oil of both species had near-identical viscosities, viscosity indices, colour and oxidative stabilities while the oil of C. argyrosperma had a slightly higher pour point, cloud point, percentage of free fatty acids and acid value when compared with C. moschata. Mean oil content values of the two species were similar at 28.7 ± /2.7 and 29.8 ± /2.6% for C. moschata and C. argyrosperma, respectively. The mean seed oil content of C. argyrosperma subsp. argyrosperma var. palmeri (32.1%) was significantly higher than that of the other taxa examined. The average (mean) percentage of total seed weight attributable to the kernel was 77.2% in C. moschata (n= 34) and 74.5% in C. argyrosperma (n= 46). The percentage of total seed weight attributable to the hull was correlated with seed oil content, in both species. Linoleic was the predominant fatty acid in all the samples analysed. Means for individual fatty acids in C. moschata were linoleic 48.5%, oleic 22.6%, palmitic 20.7% and stearic 7.5%. Means for individual fatty acids in C. argyrosperma were linoleic 47.3%, oleic 27.5%, palmitic 16.5% and stearic 8.0%.

In this study, the genetic constitution of wild grape populations distributed in the Zagros Mountains in the north-west part of Iran was investigated to assess their risk of extinction and to identify the most suitable conservation strategy. A total of 65 wild grapevine samples from five different populations were analysed using 23 SSR loci. Consistent allelic richness was detected in all the analysed populations (from 4.01 to 5.35). The observed heterozygosity and expected heterozygosity were high with mean values of 0.67 and 0.69, respectively. A modest heterozygosity deficiency was detected only in the Piranshahr and Sardasht-Shalmash populations. The neighbour-joining dendrogram clustered the accessions into three groups corresponding to the geographical distribution of the populations. Molecular data combined with field evaluation revealed that an ex situ conservation approach is the most suitable strategy for preserving the genetic richness of Iranian wild grape populations with consistent rare alleles (about 20%). We propose in situ preservation only in the case of the Sardasht-Ghasmarash population to ensure that evolutionary dynamic forces continue to influence plant adaptation and survival in response to environmental alterations.