Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T20:27:56.161Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Strategies for conservation of germplasm in endemic redwoods in the face of climate change: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2011

M. R. Ahuja
M. R. Ahuja*
Affiliation:
60 Shivertown Road, New Paltz, NY 12561, USA
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study reviews the various conservation strategies applied to the four redwood species, namely coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Sierra redwood or giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) and South American redwood or alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides), which are endemic in the USA, China and South America, respectively. All four redwood genera belong to the family Cupressaceae; they are monospecific, share a number of common phenotypic traits, including red wood, and are threatened in their native ranges due to human activity and a changing climate. Therefore, the management objective should be to conserve representative populations of the native species with as much genetic diversity as possible for their future survival. Those representative populations exhibiting relatively high levels of genetic diversity should be selected for germplasm preservation and monitored during the conservation phase by using molecular markers. In situ and ex situ strategies for the preservation of germplasm of the redwoods are discussed in this study. A holistic in situ gene conservation strategy calls for the regeneration of a large number of diverse redwood genotypes that exhibit adequate levels of neutral and adaptive genetic variability, by generative and vegetative methods for their preservation and maintenance in their endemic locations. At the same time, it would be desirable to conserve the redwoods in new ex situ reserves, away from their endemic locations with similar as well as different environmental conditions for testing their growth and survival capacities. In addition, other ex situ strategies involving biotechnological approaches for preservation of seeds, tissues, pollen and DNA in genebanks should also be fully exploited in the face of global climate change.

Keywords

climate changeendemicsgermplasm conservationgenetic diversitymolecular markersredwoodsSequoiaSequoiadendronMetasequoiaFitzroya
Type
Research Article
Information
Plant Genetic Resources , Volume 9 , Issue 3 , August 2011 , pp. 411 - 422
Copyright
Copyright © NIAB 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, RP (1997) Conservation of DNA: DNA banking. In: Callow, JA, Ford-Lloyd, BV and Newbury, HJ (eds) Biotechnology and Plant Genetic Resources, Conservation and Use. London: CABI Publishing, pp. 163–174.Google Scholar
Ahuja, MR (1986) Storage of forest tree germplasm in liquid nitrogen ( − 196°C). Silvae Genetica 35: 249–251.Google Scholar
Ahuja, MR (1989) Storage of forest tree germplasm at sub-zero temperatures. In: Dhawan, V (ed.) Application of Biotechnology in Forestry and Horticulture. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 215–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahuja, MR (1994) Reflections on germplasm preservation of trees. In: Pardos, JA, Ahuja, MR and Rosello, RE (eds) Biotechnology of Trees. Madrid: Investgacion Agraria Sistemas y Recursos Forestales, pp. 227–233.Google Scholar
Ahuja, MR (1996) Micropropagation and field testing of frost-tolerant Sequoia sempervirens genotypes. In: LeBlanc, J (ed.) Proceeding of the Conference on Coast Redwood Forest Ecology and Management. Arcata: Humboldt State University, pp. 153–155.Google Scholar
Ahuja, MR (1999) Biotechnology in forest tree gene banks. In: Edwards, DGW and Naithani, SC (eds) Seed and Nursery Technology of Forest Trees. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, pp. 23–36.Google Scholar
Ahuja, MR (2005) Polyploidy in gymnosperms: revisited. Silvae Genetica 54: 59–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahuja, MR (2009) Genetic constitution and diversity in four narrow endemic redwoods from the family Cupressaceae. Euphytica 165: 5–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahuja, MR and Neale, (2002) Origins of polyploidy in coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl.) and relationship of coast redwood to other genera of Taxodiaceae. Silvae Genetica 51: 93–100.Google Scholar
Ahuja, MR and Neale, DB (2005) Evolution of genome size in conifers. Silvae Genetica 54: 126–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aitkin-Christie, J and Singh, AP (1987) Cold storage of tissue cultures. In: Bonga, JM and Durzan, DJ (eds) Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry, vol. 1. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp. 285–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allnutt, TR, Newton, AC, Lara, A, Premoli, A, Armesto, JJ, Vergara, R and Gardner, M (1999) Genetic variation in Fitzroya cupressoides (alerce), a threatened South American conifer. Molecular Ecology 8: 975–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnaud, Y, Franclet, A, Tranvan, H and Jacques, M (1993) Micropropagation and rejuvenation of Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb) Endl.): a review. Annales des Sciences Forestieres 50: 273–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ball, EA (1950) Differentiation in a callus culture of Sequoia sempervirens. Growth 14: 295–325.Google Scholar
Behm, A, Becker, A, Dorflinger, H, et al. , (1997) Concept for the conservation of forest genetic resources in the Federal Republic of Germany. Silvae Genetica 46: 24–34.Google Scholar
Boe, KN (1974) Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl. – Redwood. In: Schopmeyer, CS (ed.) Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Washington, DC: Forest Service, USDA, pp. 764–766.Google Scholar
Bon, MC and Monteuuis, O (1991) Rejuvenation of a 100-year-old Sequoiadendron giganteum through in vitro meristem culture. I. Organogenic and morphological arguments. Physiologia Plantarum 81: 111–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bon, M-C, Riccari, F and Monteuuis, O (1994) Influence of phase change within a 90-year old Sequoia sempervirens on its in vitro organogenic capacity and protein patterns. Trees 8: 283–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonner, FT (1990) Storage of seeds: potential and limitations for germplasm conservation. Forest Ecology and Management 35: 35–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boulay, M (1997) Multiplication rapide du Sequoia sempervirens en culture in vitro. Annales AFOCEL 1977: 37–66.Google Scholar
Brinegar, C, Bruno, D, Kirkbride, R, Glavas, S and Udransky, U (2007) Applications of redwood genotyping by using microsatellite markers. USDA Forest Service Technical Report PSW-GTR 194, pp. 47–55.Google Scholar
Chen, XY, Li, YY, Wu, TY, Zhang, X and Lu, HP (2003) Size-class differences in genetic structure of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng (Taxodiaceae) plantations in Shanghai. Silvae Genetica 52: 107–109.Google Scholar
Chu, K and Cooper, SC (1999) An ecological reconnaissance in the native home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Arnoldia 59: 40–46.Google Scholar
Davis, MB and Zabinski, C (1992) Changes in geographical range resulting from greenhouse warming effects on biodiversity in forests. In: Peters, RL and Lovejoy, TE (eds) Global Warming and Biological Diversity. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 297–308.Google Scholar
Engelmann, F (2004) Plant cryopreservation: progress and prospects. In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology – Plants 40: 427–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evarts, J and Popper, M (2001) Conservation and management of redwood forests. In: Evarts, J and Popper, M (eds) Coast Redwood A Natural and Cultural History. Los Olivos: Cachuma Press, pp. 165–205.Google Scholar
Fins, L and Libby, WJ (1982) Population variation in Sequoiadendron: seed and seedling studies, vegetative propagation and isozyme variation. Silvae Genetica 31: 102–110.Google Scholar
Gadek, PA, Alpers, DL, Heslewood, MM and Quinn, CJ (2000) Relationship within Cupressaceae sensu latu: a combined morphological and molecular approach. American Journal of Botany 87: 1044–1057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geburek, T and Konrad, H (2007) Why the conservation of forest genetic resources has not worked. Conservation Biology 22: 267–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González-Martinez, SC, Krutovsky, KV and Neale, DB (2006) Forest-tree population genomics and adaptive evolution. New Phytologist 170: 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guinon, M, Larson, JB and Spethmann, W (1982) Frost resistance and early growth of Sequoiadendron giganteum seedlings of different origin. Silvae Genetica 31: 173–178.Google Scholar
Hair, JB (1968) The chromosomes of the Cupressaceae. I. Tetraclineae and Actinostrobeae (Callitroideae). New Zealand Journal of Botany 6: 277–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamrick, JL (2004) Response of forest trees to global environmental changes. Forest Ecology and Management 197: 323–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamrick, JL, Godt, MJW and Sherman-Boyles, SL (1992) Factors influencing levels of genetic diversity in woody plant species. New Forests 6: 95–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hannah, L, Midgley, G, Andelman, S, Araújo, M, Hughes, G, Martinez-Meyer, E, Pearson, R and Williams, P (2007) Protected areas needs in a changing climate. Frontiers of Ecological Environment 5: 131–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartesveldt, RJ (1969) Sequoia in Europe with a review of their discovery and their resultant importation into Europe. Final Contract Report to the National Park Service. Contract no. 14-10-0434, pp. 22.Google Scholar
Hartesveldt, RJ, Harry, HT, Schellhammer, HS and Stecker, RR (1975) The Giant Sequoia of the Sierra Nevada. Washington, DC: US Department of Interior, National Park Service, p. 180.Google Scholar
Hattemer, HH (1995) Concepts and requirements in the conservation of forest genetic resources. Forest Genetics 2: 125–134.Google Scholar
Hidalgo, E, González-Martinez, SC, Lexer, C and Heinze, B (2010) Conservation genomics. In: Jansson, S, Bhalerao, R and Groover, A (eds) Genetics and Genomics of Populus. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, pp. 349–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holderegger, R, Kamm, U and Gugerli, F (2006) Adaptive vs neutral genetic diversity: implications for landscape genetics. Landscape Ecology 21: 797–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007. The physical science basis. Summary for policymakers. Available at www.ipcc.ch.Google Scholar
IUCN (2010) IUCN red list of threatened species. Version 2010.2. Available at www.iucnredlist.org.Google Scholar
Iverson, LR and Prasad, AM (2002) Potential redistribution of tree species habitat under five climate change scenarios in the eastern US. Forest Ecology and Management 155: 205–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iverson, LR, Schwartz, MW and Prasad, AM (2004) How fast and far might tree species migrate in the eastern United States due to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography 13: 209–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iverson, LR, Prasad, AM and Schwartz, MW (2005) Predicting potential changes in suitable habitat and distribution by 2100 for tree species in the eastern United States. Journal of Agricultural Meteorology 61: 29–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iverson, LR, Prasad, AM, Matthews, SN and Peters, M (2008) Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios. Forest Ecology and Management 254: 390–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, LC (1974) Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and Cheng – Dawn Redwood. In: Schopmeyer, CS (ed.) Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Washington, DC: Forest Service, USDA, pp. 540–542.Google Scholar
Johnstone, JA and Dawson, TE (2010) Climate context and ecological implications of summer fog decline in the cost redwood region. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 107: 4533–4538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karhu, AP, Hurme, P, Karjalainen, M, Karvonen, P, Kärkkäinen, K and Neale, DB (1996) Do molecular markers reflect patterns of differentiation in adaptive traits in conifers? Theoretical and Applied Genetics 93: 215–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, AE and Goulden, ML (2008) Rapid shifts in plant distribution with recent climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105: 11823–11826.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krutovsky, KV and Neale, DB (2005) Forest genomics and new molecular genetic approaches to measuring and conserving adaptive genetic diversity in forest trees. In: Geburek, T and Turok, J (eds) Conservation and Management of Forest Genetic Resources in Europe. Zvolen: Arbora Publishers, pp. 369–390.Google Scholar
Kuser, JE (1981) Redwoods around the world. American Forests 87: 30–32.Google Scholar
Kuser, J (1983) Inbreeding depression in Metasequoia. Journal of Arnold Arboretum 64: 475–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuser, JE (1999) Metasequoia glyptostroboides: fifty years of growth in North America. Arnoldia 59: 76–79.Google Scholar
Kuser, JE, Bailly, A, Franclet, A, Libby, WJ, Martin, J, Reydelius, J, Schoenike, R and Vagle, N (1995) Early results of a range-wide provenance test of Sequoia sempervirens. Forest Genetics Resources (Rome: FAO) 23: 21–25.Google Scholar
Kuser, JE, Sheely, DL and Hendricks, DR (1997) Genetic variation in two ex situ collections of the rare Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Cupressaceae). Silvae Genetica 46: 258–264.Google Scholar
Ledig, FT (1986) Conservation strategies for forest gene resources. Forest Ecology and Management 14: 77–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ledig, FT (1987) Genetic structure and conservation of California's endemic and near-endemic conifers. In: Elliot, TS (ed.) Conservation and Management of Rare and Endangered Plants. Sacramento: California Native Plant Society, pp. 587–594.Google Scholar
Ledig, FT (1988) The conservation of diversity in forest trees. Bioscience 38: 471–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ledig, FT and Kitzmiller, JH (1992) Genetic strategies for reforestation in the face of global climate change. Forest Ecology and Management 50: 153–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ledig, FT, Hodgekiss, PD and Jacob-Cervantes, V (2002) Genetic diversity, mating system, and conservation of Mexican subalpine relict, Picea mexicana Martinez. Conservation Genetics 3: 113–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leng, Q, Fan, S-H, Wang, L, Yang, H, et al. , (2007) Database of native Metasequoia glyptostroboides trees in China based on new consensus surveys and expeditions. Bulletin of Peabody Museum Natural History 48: 185–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, J (1999) Metasequoia: an overview of its phylogeny, reproductive biology, and ecotypic variation. Arnoldia 59: 54–59.Google Scholar
Li, YY, Chen, XY, Zhang, X, Wu, TY, Lu, HP and Cai, YW (2005) Genetic differences between wild and artificial populations of Metasequoia glyptostroboides: implications of species recovery. Conservation Biology 19: 224–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Libby, WJ (1981) Some observations on Sequoiadendron and Calocedrus in Europe. California Forestry and Forest Products 49: 1–12.Google Scholar
Libby, WJ, McCutchan, BG and Millar, CI (1981) Inbreeding in selfs of redwood. Silvae Genetica 30: 15–25.Google Scholar
Libby, WJ, Anekonda, TS and Kuser, JE (1996) The genetic architecture of coast redwood. In: Leblanc, J (ed.) Proceeding of the Conference on coast Redwood Forest Ecology and Management. Arcata: Humboldt State University, pp. 147–149.Google Scholar
Liu, C, Xia, X, Yin, W, Huang, L and Zhou, J (2006) Shoot regeneration and somatic embryogenesis from needles of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl.). Plant Cell Reports 25: 621–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loarie, SR, Carter, BE, Hayhoe, K, McMahon, S, Moe, R, Knight, CA and Ackerly, DD (2008) Climate change and the future of California's endemic flora. Public Library of Science ONE 3: e2502.Google ScholarPubMed
McKenney, DW, Pedlar, J, Lawrence, K, Campbell, K and Hutchison, MF (2007) Potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of North American trees. Bioscience 57: 939–948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLachlan, JS, Clark, JS and Manos, PS (2005) Molecular indicators of tree migration capacity under rapid climate change. Ecology 86: 2088–2098.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melchior, GH and Hermann, S (1987) Differences in growth performance of four provenances of giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl) Buchh.). Silvae Genetica 38: 65–68.Google Scholar
Melchior, GH, Muhs, HJ and Stephan, BR (1986) Tactics for forest tree resources in the Federal Republic of Germany. Forest Ecology and Management 17: 73–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metcalf, W (1924) Artificial reproduction of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). Journal of Forestry 22: 873–893.Google Scholar
Millar, CI (1993) Conservation of germplasm of forest trees. In: Ahuja, MR and Libby, WJ (eds) Clonal Forestry II. Conservation and Application. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, pp. 42–65.Google Scholar
Millar, CI and Westfall, RD (1992) Allozyme markers in forest genetic conservation. New Forests 6: 347–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millar, CI, Stephenson, NL and Stephens, SL (2007) Climate change and forests of the future: managing in the face of uncertainty. Ecological Applications 17: 2145–2151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monteuuis, O (1987) In vitro meristem culture of juvenile and mature Sequoiadendron giganteum. Tree Physiology 3: 265–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monteuuis, O (1991) Rejuvenation of a 100-year-old Sequoiadendron giganteum through in vitro meristem culture. I. Organogenic and morphological arguments. Physiologia Plantarum 81: 111–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monteuuis, O, Doulbeau, S and Verdeil, JL (2008) DNA methylation in different origin clonal offspring from a mature Sequoiadendron giganteum genotype. Trees 22: 779–784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noss, RF, Strittholt, JR, Heilman, GE, Frost, PA and Sorensen, M (2000) Conservation planning in the redwoods region. In: Noss, RF (ed.) The Redwood Forest. History, Ecology, and Conservation of Redwoods. Washington, DC: Save-the-Redwoods League Island Press, pp. 201–2228.Google Scholar
Olson, DF, Roy, DF and Walters, GA (1990) Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl. Redwood. In: Burns, RM and Honkala, BH (eds) Silvics of North America, vol. 1. Conifers. Agriculture Handbook 654. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, pp. 541–551.Google Scholar
Parker, T and Donoso, C (1993) Natural regeneration of Fitzroya cupressoides in Chile and Argentina. Forest Ecology and Management 59: 63–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parmesan, C (2006) Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 37: 637–669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parmesan, C and Yohe, G (2003) A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421: 37–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearson, RG (2006) Climate change and the migration capacity of species. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21: 111–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Premoli, AC, Kitzberger, T and Veblen, TT (2000) Conservation genetics of the endangered conifer Fitzroya cupressoides in Chile and Argentina. Conservation Genetics 1: 57–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Premoli, AC, Vergara, R, Souto, CP, Lara, A and Newton, AC (2003) Lowland valleys shelter the ancient conifer Fitzroya cupressoides in the Central Depression of southern Chile. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 33: 623–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pressey, RL, Cabeza, M, Watts, ME, Cowling, RM and Wilson, KA (2007) Conservation planning in a changing world. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22: 583–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rice, N, Cordeiro, G, Shepherd, M, Bundock, P, Bradburry, L, Pacey-Miller, T, Futado, A and Harry, R (2006) DNA banks and their role in facilitating the application of genomics to plant germplasm. Plant Genetic Resources 4: 64–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, DL (1997) Inheritance of allozymes from seed tissues of the hexaploid gymnosperm, Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl. (Coast redwood). Heredity 78: 166–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, DL (2000) Genotypic diversity and clones size in old-growth populations of coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). Canadian Journal of Botany 78: 1408–1419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Root, TL, MacMynowski, DP, Mastrandrea, MD and Schneider, SH (2005) Human modified temperature induce species changes: joint attribution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 102: 7465–7469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryynänen, L (1996) Survival and regeneration of dormant silver birch buds stored at supper-low temperatures. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26: 617–623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sakai, A (1986) Cryopreservation of germplasm of woody plants. In: Bajaj, YPS (ed.) Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, vol. I. Trees I. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, pp. 113–129.Google Scholar
Satoh, K (1999) Metasequoia travels the globe. Arnoldia 59: 72–75.Google Scholar
Sawyer, JO, Gray, J, West, J, Thorburgh, DA, Noss, RF, Engbeck, JH, Marcot, BG and Raymond, R (2000) History of redwoods and redwood forests. In: Noss, RF (ed.) The Redwood Forest. History, Ecology, and Conservation of Redwoods. Washington, DC: Save-the-Redwoods League Island Press, pp. 81–118.Google Scholar
Saylor, LC and Simons, HA (1970) Karyology of Sequoia sempervirens: karyotype and accessory chromosomes. Cytologia 35: 294–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlarbaum, SE and Tsuchiya, T (1984) Cytotaxonomy and phylogeny in certain species of Taxodiaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution 147: 29–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schubert, GH (1952) Germination of various coniferous seeds after cold storage. USDA Forest Service Research Note PSW-83, pp. 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, MW, Iverson, LR, Prasad, AM, Matthews, SN and O'Connor, RJ (2006) Predicting extinctions as a result of climate change. Ecology 87: 1611–1615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanwood, PC (1985) Cryopreservation of seed germplasm for genetic conservation. In: Kartha, KK (ed.) Cryopreservation of Plant Cell and Organs. Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 199–226.Google Scholar
Stebbins, GL (1957) Self-fertilization and population variability in the higher plants. American Naturlist 91: 337–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suszka, B, Chmielarz, P and Walkenhorst, R (2005) How long can seeds of Norway speruce (Picea abies (l.) Karst.) be stored? Annales of Forest Sciences 62: 73–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, CD, Cameron, A, Green, RE, et al. , (2004) Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427: 145–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thuiller, W, Albert, C, Araújo, MB, et al. , (2008) Predicting global change impacts on plant species distributions: future challenges. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 9: 137–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tikader, A, Vijayan, K and Kamble, CK (2009) Conservation and management of mulberry germplasm through biomolecular approaches – a review. Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Reviews 3: 92–104.Google Scholar
Trenberth, KE, Dai, A, Rasmussen, RM and Pearson, RB (2003) The changing character of precipitation. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 84: 1205–1217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volis, S and Blecher, M (2010) Quasi in situ: a bridge between ex situ and in situ conservation of plants. Biodiversity and Conservation 19: 2441–2454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weatherspoon, CP (1990) Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) Buchholz, Giant Sequoia. In: Burns, RM and Honkala, BH (eds) Silvics of North America. vol 1. Conifers. Agriculture Handbook 654. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, pp. 552–562.Google Scholar
White, TL, Adams, WT and Neale, DB (2007) Forest Genetics. Cambridge, MA: CABI Publishing..CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, JW (1976) Introduction to Forest Genetics. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar