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Metaphysics and Reification
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 30 January 2009
Extract
I must admit that I was long tempted to choose a different title for this lecture—one which seemed to give a better idea of its contents. On the other hand, the title I found so attractive did not seem suited to the note of solemnity which normally accompanies an inaugural lecture. I was forced to suppress it—until today, at any rate; for today I have the opportunity of justifying it, and I hope to make the most of it. The title I wanted to use was ‘The Thing with the Thing’.
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References
1 Inaugural lecture delivered at the University of Münster (West Germany).
2 The German word ‘herrschaftsfrei’, rendered here as ‘unconstrained’, might be translated literally as ‘dominionless’. This would bring out more clearly than ‘unconstrained’ the political connotations of the word as well as the connection, emphasized below, with the Greek archē.
3 ‘Phänomenologie und Sprachanalyse’, in Hermeneutik und Dialektik, Bubner, R., Cramer, K. and Wiehl, R. (eds.) (Festschrift for H.-G. Gadamer) (Tübingen, 1970), Vol. II, 3 f.Google Scholar
4 London, 1959.
5 London and Boston, 1973.
6 Ibid., 235.
7 ‘The general result, the author believes, is a comprehensive materialism, one that rests on logical rather than scientific foundations’—as the dust-jacket of the book proclaims.
8 Op. cit., 252–380.
9 Pages 146, 174, 238 mention the problem of God, but only in referring to the positions of others.
10 Not all (cf. for example, Anscombe, G. E. M. and Geach, P. T., Three Philosophers: Aristotle, Aquinas, Frege (Oxford, 1961)).Google Scholar
11 For a criticism of this Aristotelian position see especially Flasch, K., ‘Historisch-systematische Exposition des Problems’, Die Metaphysik des Einen bei Nikolaus von Kues (Leiden, 1973), IGoogle Scholar. Teil, , 3–144.Google Scholar
12 Op. cit., 28.
13 Op. cit., 4.
14 The reism of Kotarbiński is a linguistic version of a strictly materialistic ontology of things. Cf. Küng, G.'s remarks in Chapter 8 of his book Ontology and the Logistic Analysis of Language (Dordrecht, 1967)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Quinton also refers to Kotarbiński, , cf. op. cit., 11, 245.Google Scholar
15 Cf. for example Geist in Welt (München, 1957), 326Google Scholar; Hörer des Wortes (München, 1941), 154f.Google Scholar; Das Problem der Hominisation, (Freiburg/Basel/Wien, 1961), 52.Google Scholar
16 The vulgar notion of substance as an indeterminate substrate from which properties are hung like ‘hams from a beam’ lives on in the neoscholastic con ception of the soul. Cf. Russell, B., My Philosophical Development (London/New York, 1959), 161Google Scholar. (Quoted from Küng, G., op. cit., 71Google Scholar.) Küng is certainly right in his criticism of the empiricist conception of substance, but in fact remains himself (loc. cit.) committed to the neoscholastic misconception. Bernhard Lakebrink has subjected the neoscholastic conception behind this misunder standing to a thorough critique: see ‘Geist und Welt nach Thomas von Aquin’, in Thomas von Aquin im philosophischen Gespräch, Kluxen, W. (ed.) (Freiburg/München, 1975), 38–71.Google Scholar
17 In contrast to the German word for ousia, ‘Wesen’, the English expression ‘essence’ cannot be taken in a verbal sense. Heidegger has often pointed, in this connection, to such terms as Staatswesen, Verkehrswesen. ‘Being’, taken verbally, must therefore be strictly distinguished from the traditional concept of essence (essentia). G. E. M. Anscombe has shown that the concept of essentia, which is the target for most of the attacks on so-called Aristotelian essentialism, is not to be found in Aristotle. Cf. Anscombe/Geach, op. cit., 43. Schelling emphasized that the scholastic forma is a much more suitable translation of the Aristotelian ousia than the scholastic term essentia. See Schelling, 's Werke, Bd. XI, 406Google Scholar (on Met. Z. 7, 1032b, 1–21Google Scholar). The difference which Schelling hints at in the two notions is of course that marked by the scholastic distinction between forma substantiate und forma essentialis. It can scarcely be denied that Thomas Aquinas had a more sound logical theory of predication than did Aristotle (cf. Geach, , op. cit., 76Google Scholar); on the other hand, whether the resultant emphasis on the so-called forma essentialis (‘homo’) as against the forma substantiate (‘anima’ or ‘vivere’) can be considered an advance in every respect is doubtful (cf. my ‘Kritik und Metaphysik’, in Wiener Jahrbuch für Philosophie (1968), 67–91Google Scholar, on Schelling's interpretation of Aristotle with his rejection of forma essentialis).
18 See Sorabji, R., ‘Body and Soul in Aristotle’, Philosophy 49 (1974), 78, cf. p. 70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19 If one takes this verbal side of ousia into account, one is no longer confronted with the alternative of either some thing or nothing. Cf. R. Bambrough on Ryle: ‘Ryle was so concerned to make clear that there is no such thing as the mind that he has given the impression to many (and possibly sometimes even to himself) that there are no such things as minds’ (Proc. Arist. Society 72 (1971/1972), 66).Google Scholar
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21 Cf. Owen, G. E. L., ‘The Platonism of Aristotle’, in Studies on the Philosophy of Thought and Action, Strawson, P. F. (ed.) (Oxford, 1968), 156–163Google Scholar; Aristotle's Metaphysics, Books Γ Δ Ε, translated with notes by Kirwan, Christopher (Oxford, 1971), 100 fGoogle Scholar. Cf. as well Geach, P. T., in Three Philosophers, 76.Google Scholar
22 But cf. Leśniewski, 's ‘Ontology’Google Scholar. On the latter: Kahn, Ch. H., The Verb ‘Be’ in Ancient Greek (Dordrecht–Boston, 1973) 5Google Scholar.: ‘In Leśniewski's usage, “χ ε γ” may take as true substitution instances “Socrates is wise”, “Socrates is Socrates”, “Socrates is the husband of Xanthippe” or “the husband of Xanthippe is wise”. Identity (for individuals) is defined as a special case of the epsilon relation, namely the case where “χ ε γ” and “γ ε χ” are both true; and what Russell regarded as “a disgrace to the human race”, the use of a single sign for predication and identity, is thus in part justified’.
23 Cf. the painstaking interpretation of Hermann Weidemann on Metaphysics Z 6, 10, 11, and H 3 (Metaphysik und Sprache. Eine sprachphilosophische Unter-suchung zu Thomas von Aquin und Aristoteles (Freiburg/München, 1975), 80–102Google Scholar) with a careful survey of the literature (unfortunately, however, without reference to Owen's essay cited in footnote 21).
24 See Harter, E. D., ‘Aristotle on Primary ousia’, in Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie 57 (1975), 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar, who has put the somewhat confused discussion of the notion of ousia (Albritton, Lacey, Lesher, Woods) back on the right track, by focusing on the importance of eidos as energeia (forma substantialis) in contra-distinction to eidos in the sense of species (forma essentialis).
25 Edition Vivès of the works of StThomas, (Parisiis, MDCCCLXXVI), Vol. XXI, p. 33, col. b towards the end.Google Scholar
26 Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie, Bd. III (Jubiläumsausgabe), Bd. 19, 574.Google Scholar
27 In his book Action, Emotion and Will (London, 1963)Google Scholar, which is partly dependent upon Ryle but is also critical of his behaviouristic tendencies, Anthony Kenny has subjected this theory to sharp criticism. Cf. the same author's ‘Thomas von Aquin über den Willen’, in Kluxen, W. (ed.), Thomas von Aquin im philosophischen Gespräch (Freiburg/München, 1975), 101–131.Google Scholar
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29 Ibid., 76.
30 Summa Theologiae III, q. 18. a. 4Google Scholar (utrum in Christo fuerit liberum arbitrium), ad 1.
31 Cf. for example, Wittgenstein, , Philosophical Grammar, (Blackwell, 1974)Google Scholar, §§10, 11; and Ryle, , The Concept of Mind, Ch. 5Google Scholar. For the Aristotelian distinction between kinēsis and energeia and its unique difficulties, cf. especially Ackrill, J. L., ‘Aristotle's Distinction between Energeia and Kinēsis’, in Bambrough, Renford (ed.), New Essays on Plato and Aristotle (London/New York, 1965) 121–141.Google Scholar
32 Summa Theologiae I–II, q. 6, art. 4Google Scholar. The entire sentence is quoted and interpreted by Kenny, A. in ‘Thomas von Aquin über den Willen’, 109 ff.Google Scholar
33 Werke, ed. Schlechta, , Bd. III, 501.Google Scholar
34 Ibid., Bd. III, 485.
35 Ibid., Bd. II, 580 f.
36 Ibid., Bd. III, 540.
37 ‘Formal kann das Gesagte so ausgedrückt werden, daß die Natur des Urteils oder Satzes überhaupt, die den Unterschied des Subjects und Prädikats in sich schließt, durch den spekulativen Satz zerstört wird, und der identische Satz, zu dem der weitere wird, den Gegenstoß zu jenem Verhältnis enthält’ (Phänomenologie des Geistes, Hoffmeister, (ed.), (Hamburg, 1952), 51Google Scholar). The form of the predicative proposition is, Hegel says, ‘one-sided and therefore false’ (Enzyklopädie (Hamburg: Ausgabe Nikolin Pöggeler, 1959), 62 §31 Zusatz).Google Scholar
38 Cf. the well-balanced remarks of Kahn, Ch. H., in §1 (‘The Verb “Be” and the Question of Linguistic Relativism’) of The Verb ‘Be’ in Ancient Greek (Dordrecht-Boston, 1973).Google Scholar
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40 Cf. Topitsch, E., Vom Ursprung und Ende der Metaphysik. Eine Studie zur Weltanschauungskritik (Wien, 1958)CrossRefGoogle Scholar Cf. also Kelsen, H., ‘Gott und Staat’Google Scholar und ‘Die hellenisch-makedonische Politik und die Politik des Aristoteles’, both in Aufsätze zur Ideologiekritik edited with an introduction by Topitsch, Ernst, (Neuwied, 1960).Google Scholar
41 It would be interesting to study the extent to which Anselm of Canterbury, the metaphysician who made the most explicit use of sociolegal terminology in treating the relation of God and man, employed careful linguistic analysis to emphasize the priority of the ontological relation. Cf. for example, Cur Deus Homo (München, 1970), 44.Google Scholar
42 Aquinas, , In Epist. ad Rom., c. 6, lect. 4 (ed. Vivès, , Bd. XX, Rom, 1876), 469Google Scholar, col. a. For Thomas' doctrine of freedom, cf. especially Zimmermann, A., ‘Der Begriff der Freiheit nach Thomas von Aquin’, in Thomas von Aquin 1274/1974, Oeing-Hanhoff, L. (ed.) (München, 1974), 125–161.Google Scholar
43 Cf. for example I Peter 2, 15, 18–19.
44 Nicomachean Ethics, IX, 1169 b 30.Google Scholar
45 Cf. Urs, Hans v. Balthasar, , Herrlichkeit, Eine theologische Ästhetik, III. Bd., 1. Teil (Im Raum der Metaphysik) (Einsiedeln, 1965), 21Google Scholar: ‘Bevor Ästhetik im späten Rationalismus (Baumgarten) und im Kritizismus (Kant) zu einer regional eingeschränkten Wissenschaft gemacht wurde, war sie—aufs Ganze der Über lieferung hin angeschaut—ein Aspekt der Metaphysik als der Wissenschaft vom Sein des Seienden, und sofern mit Sein das Letztbegründende der Weltvielheit gemeint war, war Metaphysik untrennbar von Theologie. Wie nun das vergäng-liche, fragmentarisch feststellbare Wahre und Gute der Welt, um verstehbar zu sein, verankert wurde in einem unvergänglich-ganzhaften Wahren und Guten, so auch das ereignishafte aufblitzende Schöne in einer unvergänglichen absoluten Schönheit, die in den heilen ρχαί des Seins—bei den “Göttern”, beim “Gött-lichen”, bei “Gott”—beheimatet ist.’