Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T02:42:52.921Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Core Affect and Natural Affective Kinds

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Abstract

It is commonly assumed that the scientific study of emotions should focus on discrete categories such as fear, anger, sadness, joy, disgust, shame, guilt, and so on. This view has recently been questioned by the emergence of the “core affect movement,” according to which discrete emotions are not natural kinds. Affective science, it is argued, should focus on core affect, a blend of hedonic and arousal values. Here, I argue that the empirical evidence does not support the thesis that core affect is a more “natural” category than discrete emotions. I conclude by recommending a splitting strategy in our search for natural affective kinds.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Philosophy of Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Eddy Nahmias, George Graham, and especially Jason Clark for their very useful comments on previous drafts of this paper.

References

Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., and Buchanan, T. W. (2005), “Amygdala Damage Impairs Emotional Memory for Gist but Not Details of Complex Stimuli”, Amygdala Damage Impairs Emotional Memory for Gist but Not Details of Complex Stimuli 8 (4): 512518..Google Scholar
Aggleton, J., ed. (1992), The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion, Memory, and Mental Dysfunction. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Barrett, L. F. (2006a), “Are Emotions Natural Kinds?”, Are Emotions Natural Kinds? 1:2858.Google Scholar
Barrett, L. F. (2006b), “Solving the Emotion Paradox: Categorization and the Experience of Emotion”, Solving the Emotion Paradox: Categorization and the Experience of Emotion 10:2046.Google Scholar
Barrett, L. F., et al. (2007a), “The Amygdala and the Experience of Affect”, The Amygdala and the Experience of Affect 2:7383.Google Scholar
Barrett, L. F., Lindquist, K., Bliss-Moreau, E., Duncan, S., Gendron, M., Mize, J., and Brennan, L. (2007b), “Of Mice and Men: Natural Kinds of Emotion in the Mammalian Brain?”, Of Mice and Men: Natural Kinds of Emotion in the Mammalian Brain? 2:297312.Google Scholar
Bedford, E. (1957), “Emotions”, Emotions 57:281304.Google Scholar
Bouton, M. E. (2005), “Behavior Systems and the Contextual Control of Anxiety, Fear, and Panic”, in Barrett, L. F. et al. (eds.), Emotions: Conscious and Unconscious. New York: Guilford, 205227.Google Scholar
Boyd, R. (1991), “Realism, Anti-foundationalism and the Enthusiasm for Natural Kinds”, Realism, Anti-foundationalism and the Enthusiasm for Natural Kinds 61:127148.Google Scholar
Boyd, R. (1999), “Homeostasis, Species, and Higher Taxa”, in Wilson, R. A. (ed.), Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 141185.Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Larsen, J. T., Poehlmann, K. M., and Ito, T. A. (2000), “The Psychophysiology of Emotion”, in Lewis, R. and Haviland-Jones, J. M. (eds.), Handbook of Emotions, 2nd ed. New York: Guilford, 173191.Google Scholar
Charland, L. C. (2002), “The Natural Kind Status of Emotion”, The Natural Kind Status of Emotion 53:511537.Google Scholar
Christie, I. C., and Friedman, B. H. (2004), “Autonomic Specificity of Discrete Emotion and Dimensions of Affective Space: A Multivariate Approach”, Autonomic Specificity of Discrete Emotion and Dimensions of Affective Space: A Multivariate Approach 51:143153.Google ScholarPubMed
Clore, G. (1994), “Why Emotions Are Never Unconscious”, in Ekman, P. and Davidson, R. J. (eds.), The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions. New York: Oxford University Press, 285290.Google Scholar
Damasio, A. R. (1999), The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt Brace.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. ([1872] 1998), The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. 3rd ed. Edited by P. Ekman. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Davis, M., and Whalen, P. J. (2001), “The Amygdala: Vigilance and Emotion”, The Amygdala: Vigilance and Emotion 6:1334.Google ScholarPubMed
Ekman, P. (1994), “Strong Evidence for Universals in Facial Expressions: A Reply to Russell's Mistaken Critique”, Strong Evidence for Universals in Facial Expressions: A Reply to Russell's Mistaken Critique 115:268287.Google ScholarPubMed
Ekman, P. (1999a), “Basic Emotions”, in Dalgleish, T. and Power, M. (eds.), Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. Chichester, UK: Wiley, 4560.Google Scholar
Ekman, P. (1999b), “Facial Expressions”, in Dalgleish, T. and Power, M. (eds.), Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. Chichester, UK: Wiley, 301320.Google Scholar
Ekman, P., Levenson, R. W., and Friesen, W. V. (1983), “Autonomic Nervous System Activity Distinguishes between Emotions”, Autonomic Nervous System Activity Distinguishes between Emotions 221:12081210.Google ScholarPubMed
Fanselow, M. S. (1994), “Neural Organization of the Defensive Behavior System Responsible for Fear”, Neural Organization of the Defensive Behavior System Responsible for Fear 1:429438.Google ScholarPubMed
Feldman, L. A. (1995), “Variations in the Circumplex Structure of Emotion”, Variations in the Circumplex Structure of Emotion 21:806817.Google Scholar
Fridlund, A. (1997), “The New Ethology of Human Facial Expressions”, in Russell, J. A. and Fernández-Dols, J.-M. (eds.), The Psychology of Facial Expression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 103129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridlund, A. J., and Duchaine, B. (1996), “‘Facial Expressions of Emotions' and the Delusion of the Hermetic Self”, in Harré, R. and Parrott, W. G. (eds.), The Emotions: Social, Cultural and Biological Dimensions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 259284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (1986), The Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (2007), The Laws of Emotion. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Griffiths, P. E. (1997), What Emotions Really Are: The Problem of Psychological Categories. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, P. E. (2004), “Is Emotion a Natural Kind?”, in Solomon, R. C. (ed.), Thinking about Feeling: Contemporary Philosophers on Emotions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 233249.Google Scholar
Griffiths, P. E., and Scarantino, A. (forthcoming), “Emotions in the Wild”, in Aydede, Murat and Robbinsin, Philip (eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Situated Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hacking, I. (1991), “A Tradition of Natural Kinds”, A Tradition of Natural Kinds 61:109126Google Scholar
Hatzimoysis, A. (2007), “The Case against Unconscious Emotions”, The Case against Unconscious Emotions 67 (October): 292299.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E. (1977), Human Emotions. New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izard, C. E. (1994), “Innate and Universal Facial Expressions: Evidence from Developmental and Cross-Cultural Research”, Innate and Universal Facial Expressions: Evidence from Developmental and Cross-Cultural Research 115:288299.Google ScholarPubMed
Izard, C. E. (2007) “Basic Emotions, Natural Kinds, Emotion Schemas, and a New Paradigm”, Basic Emotions, Natural Kinds, Emotion Schemas, and a New Paradigm 2 (3): 260275.Google Scholar
James, W. (1884), “What Is an Emotion?”, What Is an Emotion? 9:188205.Google Scholar
Keltner, D., and Ekman, P. (2000), “Facial Expression of Emotion”, in Lewis, R. and Haviland-Jones, J. M. (eds.), Handbook of Emotions, 2nd ed. New York: Guilford, 236264.Google Scholar
Kripke, S. (1972), “Naming and Necessity”, in Davidson, D. and Harman, G. (eds.), Semantics of Natural Language. Dordrecht: Reidel, 253355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., and Friesen, W. V. (1990), “Voluntary Facial Action Generates Emotion Specific Autonomic Nervous System Activity”, Voluntary Facial Action Generates Emotion Specific Autonomic Nervous System Activity 27:363384.Google ScholarPubMed
Machery, E. (2005), “Concepts Are Not a Natural Kind”, Concepts Are Not a Natural Kind 72:444467Google Scholar
Murphy, F. C., Nimmo-Smith, I., and Lawrence, A. D. (2003), “Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-analysis”, Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-analysis 3:207233.Google ScholarPubMed
Panksepp, J. (2007), “Neurologizing the Psychology of Affects”, Neurologizing the Psychology of Affects 2:281296.Google ScholarPubMed
Phan, K. L., Wager, T. D., Taylor, S. F., and Liberzon, I. (2002), “Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI”, Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI 16:331348.Google ScholarPubMed
Prinz, J. (2004a), Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Prinz, J. (2004b), “Which Emotions Are Basic?”, in Cruise, P. and Evans, D. (eds.), Emotion, Evolution and Rationality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 6987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, Hilary (1975), “The Meaning of ‘Meaning’”, in Mind, Language and Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 215271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J. A. (1980), “A Circumplex Model of Affect”, A Circumplex Model of Affect 39:11611178.Google Scholar
Russell, J. A. (1994), “Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion from Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies”, Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion from Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies 115:102141.Google ScholarPubMed
Russell, J. A. (1995), “Facial Expressions of Emotion: What Lies beyond Minimal Universality?”, Facial Expressions of Emotion: What Lies beyond Minimal Universality? 118:379391.Google ScholarPubMed
Russell, J. A. (1997), “Reading Emotion from and into Faces: Resurrecting a Dimensional-Contextual Perspective”, in Russell, J. A. and Fernández-Dols, J.-M. (eds.), The Psychology of Facial Expression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 295320.10.1017/CBO9780511659911.015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J. A. (2003), “Core Affect and the Psychological Construction of Emotion”, Core Affect and the Psychological Construction of Emotion 110:145172.Google ScholarPubMed
Russell, J. A., Bachorowski, J.-A., and Fernández-Dols, J.-M. (2003), “Facial and Vocal Expressions of Emotion”, Facial and Vocal Expressions of Emotion 54:329349.Google ScholarPubMed
Russell, J. A., and Barrett, L. F. (1999), “Core Affect, Prototypical Emotional Episodes, and Other Things Called Emotion: Dissecting the Elephant”, Core Affect, Prototypical Emotional Episodes, and Other Things Called Emotion: Dissecting the Elephant 76:805819.Google ScholarPubMed
Ryle, G. (1949), The Concept of Mind. London: Hutchinson.Google Scholar
Samuels, R. (forthcoming), “Delusion as a Natural Kind”, in Broome, M. and Bortolotti, L. (eds.), Psychiatry as Cognitive Neuroscience: Philosophical Perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Scarantino, A. (n.d.), “The Case for Unconscious Emotions”, unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Schachter, S., and Singer, J. E. (1962), “Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State”, Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State 69:379399.Google ScholarPubMed
Scherer, K. (1994), “Emotion Serves to Decouple Stimulus and Response”, in Ekman, P. and Davidson, R. J. (eds.), The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions. New York: Oxford University Press, 127130.Google Scholar
Schwartz, C. E., Wright, C. I., Shin, L. M., Kagan, J., Whalen, P. J., McMullin, K. G., and Rauch, S. L. (2003), “Differential Amygdalar Response to Novel vs. Newly Familiar Neutral Faces: A Functional MRI Probe Developed for Studying Inhibited Temperament”, Differential Amygdalar Response to Novel vs. Newly Familiar Neutral Faces: A Functional MRI Probe Developed for Studying Inhibited Temperament 53:854862.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1953), Science and Human Behavior. New York, Macmillan.Google Scholar
Stemmler, G., Heldmann, M., Pauls, C. A., and Scherer, T. (2001), “Constraints for Emotion Specificity in Fear and Anger: The Context Counts”, Constraints for Emotion Specificity in Fear and Anger: The Context Counts 38:275291.Google ScholarPubMed
Tomkins, S. S. (1995), Exploring Affect: The Selected Writings of Silvan S. Tomkins. Edited by E. V. Demos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511663994CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whalen, P. J. (1998), “Fear, Vigilance, and Ambiguity: Initial Neuroimaging Studies of the Human Amygdala”, Fear, Vigilance, and Ambiguity: Initial Neuroimaging Studies of the Human Amygdala 7:177188.Google Scholar
Wilson, F. A. W., and Rolls, E. T. (1993), “The Effects of Stimulus Novelty and Familiarity on Neuronal Activity in the Amygdala of Monkeys Performing Recognition Memory Tasks”, The Effects of Stimulus Novelty and Familiarity on Neuronal Activity in the Amygdala of Monkeys Performing Recognition Memory Tasks 93:367382.Google ScholarPubMed
Wilson, R. A., Barker, M. J., and Brigandt, I. (forthcoming), “When Traditional Essentialism Fails: Biological Natural Kinds”, Philosophical Topics.Google Scholar
Wright, C. I., Martis, B., Schwartz, C. E., Shin, L. M., Fischer, H. H., McMullin, K., and Rauch, S. L. (2003), “Novelty Responses and Differential Effects of Order in the Amygdala, Substantia and Inferior Temporal Cortex”, Novelty Responses and Differential Effects of Order in the Amygdala, Substantia and Inferior Temporal Cortex 18:660669.Google ScholarPubMed