Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T20:09:38.713Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Who Is Open to Authoritarian Governance within Western Democracies?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 September 2020

Ariel Malka Open the ORCID record for Ariel Malka [Opens in a new window] ,
Yphtach Lelkes Open the ORCID record for Yphtach Lelkes [Opens in a new window] ,
Bert N. Bakker Open the ORCID record for Bert N. Bakker [Opens in a new window]  and
Eliyahu Spivack
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Recent events have raised concern about potential threats to democracy within Western countries. If Western citizens who are open to authoritarian governance share a common set of political preferences, then authoritarian elites can attract mass coalitions that are willing to subvert democracy to achieve shared ideological goals. With this in mind, we explored which ideological groups are most open to authoritarian governance within Western general publics using World Values Survey data from fourteen Western democracies and three recent Latin American Public Opinion Project samples from Canada and the United States. Two key findings emerged. First, cultural conservatism was consistently associated with openness to authoritarian governance. Second, within half of the democracies studied, including all of the English-speaking ones, Western citizens holding a protection-based attitude package—combining cultural conservatism with left economic attitudes—were the most open to authoritarian governance. Within other countries, protection-based and consistently right-wing attitude packages were associated with similarly high levels of openness to authoritarian governance. We discuss implications for radical right populism and the possibility of splitting potentially undemocratic mass coalitions along economic lines.

Type
Special Section: Revisiting Populism
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 20 , Issue 3 , September 2022 , pp. 808 - 827
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Data replication sets are available in Harvard Dataverse at: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IFGSF5

References

Abou-Chadi, Tarik, and Wagner, Markus. 2019. “The Electoral Appeal of Party Strategies in Postindustrial Societies: When Can the Mainstream Left Succeed?” Journal of Politics 81(4): 1405–19.Google Scholar
Adorno, Theodor W., Frenkel-Brunswik, Else, Levinson, Daniel J., Sanford, R. Nevitt, Aron, Betty R., Levinson, Maria H., and Morrow, William R.. 1950. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Afonso, Alexandre, and Rennwald, Line. 2018. “The Changing Welfare State Agenda of Radical Right Parties in Europe.” In Welfare Democracies and Party Politics: Explaining Electoral Dynamics in Times of Changing Welfare Capitalism, ed. Manow, Philip, Palier, Bruno, and Schwander, Hanna, 171–194. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Altemeyer, Robert A. 1996. The Authoritarian Specter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Alexander, Amy C., and Welzel, Christian. 2017. “The Myth of Deconsolidation: Rising Liberalism and the Populist Reaction.” No. 10. ILE Working Paper Series. Institute for Law and Economics: Universität Hamburg.Google Scholar
AmericasBarometer. N.d. Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP), Vanderbilt University. (www.LapopSurveys.org).Google Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin, and Wielen, Ryan J. Vander. 2017. Taming Intuition: How Reflection Minimizes Partisan Reasoning and Promotes Democratic Accountability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ariely, Gal, and Davidov, Eldad. 2010. “Can We Rate Public Support for Democracy in a Comparable Way? Cross-National Equivalence of Democratic Attitudes in the World Value Survey.” Social Indicators Research 104(2): 271–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azevedo, Flavio, Jost, John T., Rothmund, Tobias, and Sterling, Joanna. 2019. “Neoliberal Ideology and the Justification of Inequality in Capitalist Societies: Why Social and Economic Dimensions of Ideology Are Intertwined.” Journal of Social Issues 75(1): 49–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bel, Germa. 2010. “Against the Mainstream: Nazi Privatization in 1930s Germany.” Economic History Review 63(1): 34–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakker, Bert N., Schumacher, Gijs, and Rooduijn, Matthijs. 2020. “The Populist Appeal: Personality and Anti-Establishment Communication.” Journal of Politics. (https://psyarxiv.com/n3je2/).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Sheri. 2006. The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe’s Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Sheri, and Snegovaya, Maria. 2019. “Populism and the Decline of Social Democracy.” Journal of Democracy 30(3): 5–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben-Nun Bloom, Pazit, and Arikan, Gizem. 2013. “Religion and Support for Democracy: A Cross-National Test of the Mediating Mechanisms.” British Journal of Political Science 43(2): 375–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouchard, Thomas J. 2009. “Authoritarianism, Religiousness, and Conservatism: Is ‘Obedience to Authority’ the Explanation for Their Clustering, Universality and Evolution?” In The Biological Evolution of Religious Mind and Behavior, ed. Voland, Eckart and Schiefenhövel, Wulf, 165–180. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, Mark J., and Crawford, Jarret T.. (2020). Worldview conflict and prejudice. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 61, pp. 1–66). Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Bratton, Michael. 2010. “The Meanings of Democracy: Anchoring the ‘D-Word’ in Africa.” Journal of Democracy 21(4): 106–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canetti-Nisim, Daphna. 2004. “The Effect of Religiosity on Endorsement of Democratic Values: The Mediating Influence of Authoritarianism.” Political Behavior 26(4): 377–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, John M., Helmke, Gretchen, Nyhan, Brendan, Sanders, Mitchell, and Stokes, Susan. 2019. “Searching for Bright Lines in the Trump Presidency.” Perspectives on Politics 17(3): 699–718. doi:10.1017/S153759271900001X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carl, Noah. 2014. “Verbal Intelligence Is Correlated with Socially and Economically Liberal Beliefs.” Intelligence 44:142–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carmines, Edward G., Ensley, Michael. J., and Wagner, Michael. W.. 2016. “Ideological Heterogeneity and the Rise of Donald Trump.” The Forum 14(4): 385–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claassen, Christopher. 2019. “Does Public Support Help Democracy Survive?” American Journal of Political Science 64(1): 118–34. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cochrane, Christopher. 2013. “The Asymmetrical Structure of Left/Right Disagreement: Left-Wing Coherence and Right-Wing Fragmentation in Comparative Party Policy.” Party Politics 19(1): 104-21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton, Russell J. 1994. “Communists and Democrats: Democratic Attitudes in the Two Germanies.” British Journal of Political Science 24(4): 469–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derks, Anton. 2006. “Populism and the Ambivalence of Egalitarianism: How Do the Underprivileged Reconcile a Right Wing Party Preference with Their Socio-Economic Attitudes?” World Political Science 2(3). https://doi.org/10.2202/1935-6226.1012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drutman, Lee. 2017. “Political Divisions in 2016 and Beyond: Tensions Between and Within the Two Parties.” Report, June. Democracy Fund Voter Study Group. Fund Voter Study Group. (https://www.voterstudygroup.org/publications?author=lee-drutman&year=2017&sort=).Google Scholar
Drutman, Lee, Diamond, Larry, and Goldman, Joe. 2018. “Follow the Leader: Exploring American Support for Democracy and Authoritarianism.” Report, June. Democracy Fund Voter Study Group. Retrieved September, 20, 2018 (https://www.voterstudygroup.org/publication/testing-the-limits).Google Scholar
Duckitt, John, and Sibley, Chris G.. 2009. “A Dual-Process Motivational Model of Ideology, Politics, and Prejudice.” Psychological Inquiry 20(2-3): 98–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagle, David E. 2011. “Changing Patterns of Attendance at Religious Services in Canada, 1986–2008.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 50(1): 187–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Easton, David. 1965. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Enders, Craig K. 2010. Applied Missing Data Analysis. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fails, Matthew D., and Pierce, Heather N.. 2010. “Changing Mass Attitudes and Democratic Deepening.” Political Research Quarterly 63(1): 174–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federico, Christopher M., Fisher, Emily L., and Deason, Grace. 2017. “The Authoritarian Left Withdraws from Politics: Ideological Asymmetry in the Relationship between Authoritarianism and Political Engagement.” Journal of Politics 79(3): 1010–23.Google Scholar
Federico, Christopher M., and Malka, Ariel. 2018. “The Contingent, Contextual Nature of the Relationship between Needs for Security and Certainty and Political Preferences: Evidence and Implications.” Political Psychology 39(51): 3–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, Stanley. 2003. “Values, Ideology, and the Structure of Political Attitudes.” In Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, ed. Sears, David O., Huddy, Leonie, and Jervis, Robert, 477–508. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fenger, Menno. 2018. “The Social Policy Agendas of Populist Radical Right Parties in Comparative Perspective.” Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy 34(3): 188–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foa, Roberto S., and Mounk, Yascha. 2017. “The Signs of Deconsolidation.” Journal of Democracy 28(1): 5–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedom House. 2019. Democracy in Retreat: Freedom in the World 2019. (https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2019).Google Scholar
Gelman, Andrew. 2008. “Scaling Regression Inputs by Dividing by Two Standard Deviations.” Statistics in Medicine 27(15): 2865–73.Google ScholarPubMed
Gidron, Noam. 2016. “Many Ways to Be Right: The Unbundling of European Mass Attitudes and Partisan Asymmetries across the Ideological Divide.” PhD dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences.Google Scholar
Gidron, Noam, and Ziblatt, Daniel. 2019. “Center-Right Political Parties in Advanced Democracies.” Annual Review of Political Science 22:17–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschall, Amanda C., West, Stephen G., and Enders, Craig K.. 2012. “A Comparison of Item-Level and Scale-Level Multiple Imputation for Questionnaire Batteries.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 47(1): 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guiso, Luigi, Sapienza, Paola, and Zingales, Luigi. 2003. “People's Opium? Religion and Economic Attitudes.” Journal of Monetary Economics 50(1): 225–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hadenius, Axel, and Teorell, Jan. 2005. “Cultural and Economic Prerequisites of Democracy: Reassessing Recent Evidence.” Studies in Comparative International Development 39(4): 87–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartz, Louis. 1955. The Liberal Tradition in America: An Interpretation of American Political Thought since the Revolution, vol. 46. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar
Hetherington, Marc, and Weiler, Jonathan. 2009. Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hillen, Sven, and Steiner, Nils D.. 2019. “The Consequences of Supply Gaps in Two‐Dimensional Policy Spaces for Voter Turnout and Political Support: The Case of Economically Left‐Wing and Culturally Right‐Wing Citizens in Western Europe.” European Journal of Political Research. doi: 10.1111/1475-6765.12348.Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald. 2003. “How Solid Is Mass Support for Democracy—and How Can We Measure It?” PS: Political Science & Politics 36(1): 51–57.Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald, Haerpfer, Christian, Moreno, Alejandro, Welzel, Christian, Kizilova, Kseniya, Diez-Medrano, Jaime, Lagos, Marta, Norris, Pippa, Ponarin, Eduard, and Puranen, Bi et al., eds. 2014. “World Values Survey: All Rounds—Country-Pooled Datafile Version.” Madrid: JD Systems Institute. (http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWVL.jsp).Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald, and Welzel, Christian. 2005. Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jedinger, Alexander, and Burger, Axel M.. 2019. “The Ideological Foundations of Economic Protectionism: Authoritarianism, Social Dominance Orientation, and the Moderating Role of Political Involvement.” Political Psychology. (https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12627).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Christopher D. 2018. “Authoritarianism, Affective Polarization, and Economic Ideology.” Advances in Political Psychology 39: 219–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Christopher D., Lavine, Howard G., and Federico, Christopher M.. 2017. Open versus Closed: Personality, Identity, and the Politics of Redistribution. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, John T., Glaser, Jack, Kruglanski, Arie W., and Sulloway, Frank J.. 2003. “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition.” Psychological Bulletin 129(3): 339.Google ScholarPubMed
de Jonge, Kiewiet, Chad, P. 2016. “Should Researchers Abandon Questions about ‘Democracy’? Evidence from Latin America.” Public Opinion Quarterly 80(3): 694–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirsch, Helen, and Welzel, Christian. 2019. “Democracy Misunderstood: Authoritarian Notions of Democracy around the Globe.” Social Forces 98(1): 59–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latin American Public Opinion Project. (LAPOP). (N.d.) “Country Questionnaires and Sample Designs.” Retrieved June 24, 2019. (https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/core-surveys.php)Google Scholar
Lefkofridi, Zoe, and Michel, Elie. 2017. “The Electoral Politics of Solidarity: The Welfare Agendas of Radical Right Parties.” In The Strains of Commitment: The Political Sources of Solidarity in Diverse Societies, ed. Banting, Keith and Kymlicka, Will, 233–267. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lefkofridi, Zoe, Wagner, Markus, and Willmann, Johanna E.. 2014. “Left-Authoritarians and Policy Representation in Western Europe: Electoral Choice across Ideological Dimensions.” West European Politics 37(1): 65–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Ziblatt, Daniel. 2018. How Democracies Die. New York: Crown.Google Scholar
Lindberg, Staffan I., Coppedge, Michael, Gerring, John, and Teorell, Jan. 2014. “V-Dem: A New Way to Measure Democracy.” Journal of Democracy 25(3): 159–69.Google Scholar
Linz, Juan J., and Stepan, Alfred C.. 1996. “Toward Consolidated Democracies.” Journal of Democracy 7(2): 14–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipset, Seymour M. 1959. “Democracy and Working-Class Authoritarianism.” American Sociological Review 24(4): 482–501.Google Scholar
Lührmann, Anna, Gastaldi, Lisa, Grahn, Sandra, Lindberg, Staffan, Maxwell, Laura, Mechkova, Valeriya, Morgan, Richard, Stepanova, Natalia, and Pillai, Shreeya. 2019. V-Dem Annual Democracy Report 2019: Democracy Facing Global Challenges. V-Dem Institute, Department of Political Science, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.Google Scholar
Malka, Ariel. 2013. “Religion and Domestic Political Attitudes around the World.” In Religion, Personality, and Social Behavior, ed. Saroglou, Vassilis, 230–254. New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Malka, Ariel, Lelkes, Yphtach, and Soto, Christopher J.. 2019. “Are Cultural and Economic Conservatism Positively Correlated? A Large-Scale Cross-National Test.” British Journal of Political Science 49(3): 1045–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malka, Ariel, and Soto, Christopher J.. 2015. “Rigidity of the Economic Right? Menu-Independent and Menu-Dependent Influences of Psychological Dispositions on Political Attitudes.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 24(2): 137–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClosky, Herbert, and Zaller, John. 1984. The American Ethos: Public Attitudes toward Capitalism and Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michel, Elie. 2017. “Welfare Politics and the Radical Right: The Relevance of Welfare Politics for the Radical Right’s Success in Western Europe.” Doctoral Thesis, European University Institute, Florence, Italy. (http://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/46384).Google Scholar
Miller, Steven V. 2017. “Economic Threats or Societal Turmoil? Understanding Preferences for Authoritarian Political Systems.” Political Behavior 39(2): 457–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Steven V., and Davis, Nicholas T.. 2018. “White Outgroup Intolerance and Declining Support for American Democracy.” Unpublished manuscript. (https://github.com/svmiller/woi/blob/master/woi.pdf).Google Scholar
Mudde, Cas. 2007. Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/populist-radical-right-parties-in-europe/244D86C50E6D1DC44C86C4D1D313F16DGoogle Scholar
Norris, Pippa. 2011. Democratic Deficit: Critical Citizens Revisited. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, Pippa. 2017. “Is Western Democracy Backsliding? Diagnosing the Risks.” Online Exchange on “Democratic Deconsolidation.” Journal of Democracy. (https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Journal-of-Democracy-Web-Exchange-Norris_0.pdf).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, Pippa, and Inglehart, Ronald. 2019. Cultural Backlash: Trump, Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Oliver, J. Eric, and Rahn, Wendy M.. 2016. “Rise of the Trumpenvolk: Populism in the 2016 Election.” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 667(1): 189–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oyserman, Daphna, Coon, Heather M., and Kemmelmeier, Markus. 2002. “Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptions and Meta-Analyses.” Psychological Bulletin 128(1): 3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pardos-Prado, Sergi. 2015. “How Can Mainstream Parties Prevent Niche Party Success? Center-Right Parties and the Immigration Issue.” Journal of Politics 77(2): 352–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2013. “Canada’s Changing Religious Landscape.” June 27. (https://www.pewforum.org/2013/06/27/canadas-changing-religious-landscape/).Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2017. “In America, Does More Education Equal Less Religion?” April 26 (https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/26/in-america-does-more-education-equal-less-religion/).Google Scholar
Plattner, Marc F. 2017. “Liberal Democracy's Fading Allure.” Journal of Democracy 28(4): 5–14.Google Scholar
Plattner, Marc F. 2019. “Illiberal Democracy and the Struggle on the Right.” Journal of Democracy 30(1): 5–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pop-Eleches, Grigore, and Tucker, Joshua A.. 2019. “Communist Legacies and Left Authoritarianism.” Comparative Political Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0010414019879954.Google Scholar
Qi, Lingling, and Shin, Doh C.. 2011. “How Mass Political Attitudes Affect Democratization: Exploring the Facilitating Role Critical Democrats Play in the Process.” International Political Science Review 32(3): 245–62.Google Scholar
Robitzsch, Alexander, Grund, Simon, Henke, Thorsten, and Robitzsch, M. A.. 2019. Package ‘miceadds’. (https://github.com/alexanderrobitzsch/miceadds).Google Scholar
Rovny, Jan. 2013. “Where Do Radical Right Parties Stand? Position Blurring in Multidimensional Competition.” European Political Science Review 5(1): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, Donald B. 1986. “Statistical Matching Using File Concatenation with Adjusted Weights and Multiple Imputations.” Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 4(1): 87–94. doi:10.2307/1391390.Google Scholar
Sarsfield, Rodolfo, and Echegaray, Fabian. 2006. “Opening the Black Box: How Satisfaction with Democracy and Its Perceived Efficacy Affect Regime Preference in Latin America.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 18(2): 153–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saucier, Gerard. 2000. “Isms and the Structure of Social Attitudes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78(2): 366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schedler, Andreas, and Sarsfield, Rodolfo. 2007. “Democrats with Adjectives: Linking Direct and Indirect Measures of Democratic Support.” European Journal of Political Research 46(5): 637–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoonvelde, Martijn, Brosius, Anna, Schumacher, Gijs, and Bakker, Bert N.. 2019. “Liberals Lecture, Conservatives Communicate: Analyzing Complexity and Ideology in 381,609 Political Speeches.” PloS One 14(2): e0208450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schumacher, Gijs, and van Kersbergen, Kees. 2016. “Do Mainstream Parties Adapt to the Welfare Chauvinism of Populist Parties?” Party Politics 22(3): 300–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, Shalom H., Caprara, Gian V., and Vecchione, Michele. 2010. “Basic Personal Values, Core Political Values, and Voting: A Longitudinal Analysis.” Political Psychology 31(3): 421–52.Google Scholar
Stankov, Lazar. 2017. “Conservative Syndrome: Individual and Cross-Cultural Differences.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 48(6): 950–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stenner, Karen. 2005. The Authoritarian Dynamic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, John L., Piereson, James, and Marcus, George E.. 1982. Political Tolerance and American Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Triandis, Harry C. 1993. “Collectivism and Individualism as Cultural Syndromes.” Cross-Cultural Research 27(3-4): 155–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Buuren, Stef, and Groothuis-Oudshoorn, Karin. 2010. “mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R.” Journal of Statistical Software 45(3): 1–67.Google Scholar
Van der Brug, Wouter, and Spanje, Joost Van. 2009. “Immigration, Europe and the ‘New’ Cultural Dimension.” European Journal of Political Research 48(3): 309–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voeten, Erik. 2017. “Are People Really Turning Away from Democracy?” Online Exchange on “Democratic Deconsolidation.” Journal of Democracy. (https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Journal-of-Democracy-Web-Exchange-Voeten_0.pdf).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Glenn D., and Patterson, John R.. 1968. “A New Measure of Conservatism.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 7(4): 264–69.Google ScholarPubMed
Webb, Paul, and Bale, Tim. 2014. “Why Do Tories Defect to UKIP? Conservative Party Members and the Temptations of the Populist Radical Right.” Political Studies 62(4): 961–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welzel, Christian. 2007. “Are Levels of Democracy Affected by Mass Attitudes? Testing Attainment and Sustainment Effects on Democracy.” International Political Science Review 28(4): 397–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welzel, Christian. 2013. Freedom Rising. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziblatt, Daniel. 2017. Conservative Political Parties and the Birth of Modern Democracy in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zmigrod, Leor, Rentfrow, Peter J., and Robbins, Trevor W.. 2018. “Cognitive Underpinnings of Nationalistic Ideology in the Context of Brexit.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(19): E4532-40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: Link

Malka et al. Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IFGSF5
Link
Supplementary material: PDF

Malka et al. Supplementary Materials

Malka et al. Supplementary Materials

Download Malka et al. Supplementary Materials(PDF)
PDF 1.4 MB