Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T16:15:50.392Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Schooling as a Formative Political Experience: Authority Relations and the Education of Citizens

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 February 2018

Sarah K. Bruch  and
Joe Soss
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

How does formal education matter for inequalities of political behavior across the citizenry? Most answers to this question focus on the things that schools allocate, such as skills, knowledge, and resources. By contrast, we draw on policy feedback research to resuscitate a more “Deweyian” appreciation for schools as sites where citizens have their earliest formative experiences with public authority and learn what it means to participate in a rule-governed community. Using nationally representative panel data, we conduct an intersectional analysis of how race, class, and gender combine to shape student experiences with school authority relations, and estimate how these experiences are associated with later citizen dispositions in young adulthood. We find strong evidence that negative school authority experiences depress young adult political engagement and trust in government. American schools, we conclude, function as powerful sites of experiential learning that tighten the bond between social hierarchies and civic inequalities.

Type
Special Section: The Politics of Inclusion and Exclusion
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 16 , Issue 1 , March 2018 , pp. 36 - 57
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anyon, Jean. 1981. “Social Class and School Knowledge.” Curriculum Inquiry 11(1): 3–42.Google Scholar
Anyon, Yolanda, Gregory, Anne, Stone, Susan, Farrar, Jordan, Jenson, Jeffrey M., McQueen, Jeanette, Downing, Barbara, Greer, Eldridge, and Simmons, John. 2016. “Restorative Interventions and School Discipline Sanctions in a Large Urban District.” American Educational Research Journal 53(6): 1663–97.Google Scholar
Arum, Richard. 2003. Judging School Discipline: The Crisis of Moral Authority. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Auyero, Javier. 2012. Patients of the State: The Politics of Waiting in Argentina. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 2008. Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Blake, Jamilia J., Ray Butler, Bettie, Lewis, Chance W., and Darensbourg, Alicia. 2011. “Unmasking the Inequitable Discipline Experiences of Urban Black Girls: Implications for Urban Education Stakeholders.” Urban Review 43: 90–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourdieu, P. 1973. “Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction.” In Knowledge, Education and Cultural Change: Papers in the Sociology of Education, ed. Brown, R.. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre and Passeron, Jean-Claude. 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture. Tran. Nice, Richard. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Bowles, Samuel and Gintis, Herbert. 1976. Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and Contradictions of Economic Life. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bradshaw, Catherine P., Mitchell, Mary M., O’Brennan, Lindsey M., and Leaf, Philip J.. 2010. “Multilevel Exploration of Factors Contributing to the Overrepresentation of Black Students in Office Disciplinary Referrals.” Journal of Educational Psychology 102(2): 508–20.Google Scholar
Brayne, Sarah. 2014. “Surveillance and System Avoidance: Criminal Justice Contact and Institutional Attachment.” American Sociological Review 79(3): 367–91.Google Scholar
Bruch, Sarah K., Ferree, Myra Marx, and Soss, Joe. 2010. “From Polity to Policy: Democracy, Paternalism, and the Incorporation of Disadvantaged Citizens.” American Sociological Review 75(2): 205–26.Google Scholar
Burch, Traci. 2013. Trading Democracy for Justice: Criminal Convictions and the Decline of Neighborhood Political Participation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Callahan, Rebecca M. and Muller, Chandra. 2013. Coming of Political Age: American Schools and the Civic Development of Immigrant Youth. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Campbell, Andrea Louise. 2012. “Policy Makes Mass Politics.” Annual Review of Political Science 15: 333–51.Google Scholar
Campbell, David E. 2006. Why We Vote: How Schools and Communities Shape Our Civic Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Casella, Ronnie. 2003. “Zero Tolerance Policy in Schools: Rationale, Consequences, and Alternatives.” Teachers College Record 105: 872–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavanah, Tom, Vigil, Patricia, and Garcia, Estrellita. 2014. “A Story Legitimating the Voices of Latino/Hispanic Students and their Parents: Creating a Restorative Justice Response to Wrongdoing and Conflict in Schools.” Equity and Excellence in Education 47(4): 565–79.Google Scholar
Chaffee, Steven H., Scott Ward, L., and Tipton, Leonard P.. 1970. “Mass Communication and Political Socialization.” Journalism Quarterly 47(4): 647–66.Google Scholar
Chantala, Kim. 2006. “Guidelines for Analyzing Add Health Data.” Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Cho, Sumi, Williams Crenshaw, Kimberle, and McCall, Leslie. 2013. “Toward a Field of Intersectionality Studies: Theory, Applications, and Praxis.” Signs 38(4): 785–810.Google Scholar
Cohen, Cathy J. 1999. Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Geoffrey L. and Garcia, Julio. 2014. “Educational Theory, Practice, and Policy and the Wisdom of Social Psychology.” Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1(1): 13–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, James S. 1966. Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Education.Google Scholar
Coleman, James S. and Hoffer, Thomas. 1987. Public and Private High Schools. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill. 2015. “Intersectionality’s Definitional Dilemmas.” Annual Review of Sociology 41: 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Condon, Meghan. 2015. “Voice Lessons: Rethinking the Relationship between Education and Political Participation.” Political Behavior 37(4): 819–43.Google Scholar
Conover, Pamela Johnston and Searing, Donald D.. 2000. “A Political Socialization Perspective.” In Rediscovering the Democratic Purposes of Education, ed. McDonnell, Lorraine M., Timpane, Michael, and Benjamin, Roger. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
Converse, Philip E. 1972. “Change in the American Electorate.” In The Human Meaning of Social Change, ed. Campbell, Angus and Converse, Philip E.. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Cruikshank, Barbara. 1999. The Will to Empower: Democratic Citizens and Other Subjects. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Delli Carpini, Michael and Keeter, Scott. 1996. What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dewey, John. 1900. School and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Dewey, John. 1916. Democracy and Education. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar
Dewey, John. 1937. Lectures in Educational Philosophy. Center for Dewey Studies. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Dreeben, Robert. 1968. On What Is Learned in School. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile. 2008 [1912]. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Epp, Charles R., Maynard-Moody, Steven, and Haider-Markel, Donald. 2014. Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Feldman, Martha S. and Pentland, Brian T.. 2003. “Reconceptualizing Organizational Routines as a Source of Flexibility and Change.” Administrative Science Quarterly 48(1): 94–118.Google Scholar
Fine, Michelle, Burns, April, Payne, Yasser A., and Torre, Maria A.. 2004. “Civic Lessons: The Color and Class of Betrayal.” Teachers College Record 106(11): 2193–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanagan, Constance and Levine, Peter. 2010. “Civic Engagement and the Transition to Adulthood.” The Future of Children 20(1): 159–79.Google Scholar
Gainous, Jason and Martens, Allison M.. 2012. “The Effectiveness of Civic Education: Are ‘Good’ Teachers Actually Good for ‘All’ Students?” American Politics Research 40(2): 232–66.Google Scholar
Galston, William A. 2001. “Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education.” Annual Review of Political Science 4: 217–34.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 2012. Affluence and Influence: Economic Inequality and Political Power in America. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Gimpel, James G., Celeste Lay, J., and Schuknecht, Jason E.. 2003. Cultivating Democracy: Civic Environments and Political Socialization in America. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Glenn, Evelyn Nakano. 2002. Unequal Freedom: How Race and Gender Shaped American Citizenship and Labor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Glenn, Evelyn Nakano. 2011. “Constructing Citizenship: Exclusion, Subordination, and Resistance.” American Sociological Review 76(1): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez, Thalia. 2012. “Keeping the Kids in Schools: Restorative Justice, Punitive Discipline, and the School to Prison Pipeline.” Journal of Law and Education 41(2): 281–335.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, Gary D., Gottfredson, Denise C., Ann Payne, Allison, and Gottfredson, Nisha C.. 2005. “School Climate Predictors of School Disorder: Results from a National Study of Delinquency Prevention in Schools.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 42(4): 412–44.Google Scholar
Gregory, Anne and Clawson, Kathleen. 2016. “The Potential of Restorative Approaches to Discipline for Narrowing Racial and Gender Disparities.” In Inequality in School Discipline: Research and Practice to Reduce Disparities, ed. Skiba, Russell J., Mediratta, Kavitha, and Karega Rausch, M.. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gregory, Anne, Skiba, Russell J., and Noguera, Pedro A.. 2010. “The Achievement Gap and the Discipline Gap: Two Sides of the Same Coin?” Educational Researcher 39(1): 59–68.Google Scholar
Gutmann, Amy. 1999. Democratic Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S. and Pierson, Paul. 2011. Winner-Take-All-Politics: How Washington Made the Rich Richer—and Turned Its Back on the Middle Class. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Hancock, Ange-Marie. 2016. Intersectionality: An Intellectual History. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hannon, Lance, DeFina, Robert, and Bruch, Sarah K.. 2013. “The Relationship Between Skin Tone and Suspension for African Americans.” Race and Social Problems 5: 281–95.Google Scholar
Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Whitsel, E., Hussey, J., Tabor, J., Entzel, P., and Udry, J. R.. 2009. “The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health: Research Design.” Available at http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.Google Scholar
Hirschfield, Paul J. 2008. “Preparing for Prison? The Criminalization of School Discipline in the USA.” Theoretical Criminology 12: 79–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hochschild, Jennifer L. and Scovronick, Nathan. 2003. The American Dream and the Public Schools. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ichilov, Orit, ed. 1990. Political Socialization, Citizenship Education, and Democracy. New York: Teacher’s College Press.Google Scholar
Irwin, Katherine, Davidson, Janet, and Hall-Sanchez, Amanda. 2012. “The Race to Punish in American Schools: Class and Race Predictors of Punitive School-Crime Control.” Critical Criminology 21(1): 47–71.Google Scholar
Jackson, Phillip W. 1990 [1968]. Life in Classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Lawrence and Skocpol, Theda. eds. 2007. Inequality and American Democracy: What We Know and What We Need to Learn. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Jain, Sonia, Bassey, Henrissa, Brown, Martha A., and Kalra, Preety. 2014. “Restorative Justice in Oakland Schools: Implementation and Impacts.” Prepared for the Office of Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education. Oakland, CA: Oakland Unified School District.Google Scholar
Jennings, M. Kent and Niemi, Richard. 1974. The Political Character of Adolescents. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Justice, Benjamin and Meares, Tracey L.. 2014. “How the Criminal Justice System Educates Citizens.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 651: 159–77.Google Scholar
Kahne, Joseph E. and Middaugh, Ellen. 2008. “High Quality Civic Education: What It Is and Who Gets It.” Social Education 72(1): 34–39.Google Scholar
Kerckhoff, Alan C. 1995. “Institutional Arrangements and Stratification Processes in Industrial Societies.” Annual Review of Sociology 21: 323–347.Google Scholar
Kerckhoff, Alan C. 2001. “Education and Social Stratification Processes in Comparative Perspective.” 74: 3–18.Google Scholar
Kirk, David S. and Sampson, Robert J.. 2011. “Crime and the Production of Safe Schools.” In Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances, ed. Duncan, Greg and Murnane, Richard. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Kumlin, Staffan. 2004. The Personal and the Political: How Personal Welfare State Experiences Affect Political Trust and Ideology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kumlin, Staffan and Rothstein, Bo. 2005. “Making and Breaking Social Capital: The Impact of Welfare-State Institutions.” Comparative Political Studies 38(4): 339–65.Google Scholar
Kupchik, Aaron. 2010. Homeroom Security: School Discipline in an Age of Fear. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Kupchik, Aaron and Catlaw, Thomas J.. 2015. “Discipline and Participation: The Long-Term Effects of Suspension and School Security on the Political and Civic Engagement of Youth.” Youth and Society 47(1): 95–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kupchik, Aaron and Ellis, Nicholas. 2008. “School Discipline and Security: Fair for All Students?” Youth and Society 39(4): 549–74.Google Scholar
Kupchik, Aaron and Ward, Geoff. 2014. “Race, Poverty, and Exclusionary School Security: An Empirical Analysis of U.S. Elementary, Middle and High School.” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 12(4): 332–54.Google Scholar
Kymlicka, Will and Norman, Wayne. 1994. “Return of the Citizen: A Survey of Recent Work on Citizenship Theory.” Ethics 104(2): 352–81.Google Scholar
Labaree, David F. 1997. “Public Goods, Private Goods: The American Struggle over Educational Goals.” American Educational Research Journal 34(1): 39–81.Google Scholar
Lareau, Annette. 2011[2002]. Unequal Childhoods Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Latour, Bruno. 1986. “The Powers of Association.” In Power, Action and Belief, ed. Law, J.. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lee, Nam-Jin, Shah, Dhavan V., and McLeod, Jack M.. 2013. “Processes of Political Socialization: A Communication Mediation Approach to Youth Civic Engagement.” Communication Research 40(5): 669–97.Google Scholar
Lerman, Amy E. and Weaver, Vesla M.. 2014. Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Levin, Betsy. 1986. “Educating Youth for Citizenship: The Conflict between Authority and Individual Rights in the Public School.” Yale Law Review 95(8): 1647–80.Google Scholar
Linn, E. Allen and Tyler, Tom R.. 1988. The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Litt, Edgar. 1963. “Civic Education, Community Norms, and Political Indoctrination.” American Sociological Review 28(1): 69–75.Google Scholar
Losen, Daniel J., ed. 2015. Closing the School Discipline Gap: Equitable Remedies for Excessive Exclusion. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Lyons, William and Drew, Julie. 2006. Punishing Schools: Fear and Citizenship in American Public Education. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Macedo, Stephen, ed. 2005. Democracy at Risk: How Political Choices Undermine Citizen Participation, and What Can Do About It. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Mann, Horace. 1848. Twelfth Annual Report to the Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. Available at https://genius.com/Horace-mann-twelfth-annual-report-to-the-secretary-of-the-massachusetts-state-board-of-education-1848-annotated. Google Scholar
Marshall, T. H. 1964 [1949]. “Citizenship and Social Class.” In Class, Citizenship, and Social Development: Essays by T.H. Marshall, ed. Lipset, Seymour Martin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McDonnell, Lorraine M. 2000. “Defining Democratic Purposes.” In Rediscovering the Democratic Purposes of Education, ed. Timpane, Michael and Benjamin, Roger. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
McFarland, Daniel A. and Thomas, Reuben J.. 2006. “Bowling Young: How Youth Associations Influence Adult Political Participation.” American Sociological Review 71(3): 401–25.Google Scholar
McNeely, Clea A., Nonnemaker, James M., and Blum, Robert W.. 2002. “Promoting School Connectedness: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.” Journal of School Health 72(4): 138–46.Google Scholar
Mettler, Suzanne. 2005. Soldiers to Citizens: The G.I. Bill and the Making of the Greatest Generation. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mettler, Suzanne. 2016. “The Policyscape and the Challenges of Contemporary Politics to Policy Maintenance.” Perspectives on Politics 14(2): 369–90.Google Scholar
Mettler, Suzanne and Soss, Joe. 2004. “The Consequences of Public Policy for Democratic Citizenship: Bridging Policy Studies and Mass Politics.” Perspectives on Politics 2(1): 55–73.Google Scholar
Metz, Mary Haywood. 1978. Classrooms and Corridors: The Crisis of Authority in Desegregated Secondary Schools. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Moynihan, Donald P. and Soss, Joe. 2014. “Policy Feedback and the Politics of Administration.” Public Administration Review 74(3): 320–32.Google Scholar
Nie, Norman H., Junn, Jane, and Stehlik-Barry, Kenneth. 1996. Education and Democratic Citizenship in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Niemi, Richard G. and Junn, Jane. 1998. Civic Education: What Makes Students Learn. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Oakes, Jeannie. 1985. Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Okin, Susan Moller. 1989. Justice, Gender, and the Family. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Orfield, Gary and Frankenberg, Erica. 2014. “Brown at 60: Great Progress, a Long Retreat and an Uncertain Future.” The Civil Rights Project. Available at https://www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integration-and-diversity/brown-at-60-great-progress-a-long-retreat-and-an-uncertain-future Google Scholar
Osborne, Danny, Sears, David O., and Valentino, Nicholas A.. 2011. “The End of the Solidly Democratic South: The Impressionable Years Hypothesis.” Political Psychology 31(1): 81–108.Google Scholar
Pace, Judith and Hemmings, Annette. 2007. “Understanding Authority in Classrooms: A Review of Theory, Ideology, and Research.” Review of Educational Research 77: 4–27.Google Scholar
Parsons, Talcott. 1959. “The School Class as a Social System Some of Its Functions in American Society.” Educational Review (29): 297–318.Google Scholar
Pateman, Carole. 1970. Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Patrick, John J. and Hoge, John D.. 1991. “Teaching Government, Civics, and Law.” In Handbook of Research on Social Studies Teaching and Learning, ed. Shaver, James P.. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Pierson, Paul. 1993. “When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Change.” World Politics 45: 595–628.Google Scholar
Popkin, Samuel L. and Dimock, Michael A.. 1999. Political Knowledge and Citizen Competence. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.Google Scholar
Ramey, David M. 2015. “The Social Structure of Criminalized and Medicalized School Discipline.” Sociology of Education 88(3): 181–201.Google Scholar
Reardon, Sean F. 2016. “School Segregation and Racial Achievement Gaps.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 2(5), 34–57.Google Scholar
Reardon, Sean F. and Owens, Ann. 2014. “60 Years After Brown: Trends and Consequences of School Segregation.” Annual Review of Sociology 40: 199–218.Google Scholar
Rocque, Michael. 2010. “Office Discipline and Student Behavior: Does Race Matter?” American Journal of Education 116: 557–581.Google Scholar
Roseberry, William. 1994. “Hegemony and the Language of Contention.” In Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico, ed. Joseph, Gilbert M. and Nugent, Daniel. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, James E. 1976. Making Inequality: The Hidden Curriculum of High School Tracking. New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Sapiro, Virginia. 2004. “Political Socialization during Adulthood: Clarifying the Political Times of our Lives.” Research in Micropolitics 4: 197–223.Google Scholar
Schudson, Michael. 2011. The Good Citizen: A History of American CIVIC Life. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Sears, David O. and Valentino, Nicholas A.. 1997. “Politics Matters: Political Events as Catalysts for Preadult Socialization.” American Political Science Review 91(1): 45–65.Google Scholar
Settle, Jamie E., Bond, Robert, and Levitt, Justin. 2011. “The Social Origins of Adult Political Behavior.” American Politics Research 39(2): 239–63.Google Scholar
Shedd, Carla. 2015. Unequal City: Race, Schools, and Perceptions of Justice. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Simon, Jonathan. 2006. Governing Through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sinclair, Betsy. 2012. The Social Citizen: Peer Networks and Political Behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Skiba, Russell J., Chung, Choong-Geun, Trachok, Megan, Baker, Timberly L., Sheya, Adam, and Hughes, Robin L.. 2014. “Parsing Disciplinary Disproportionality: Contributions of Infraction, Student, and School Characteristics to Out-of-School Suspension and Expulsion.” American Education Research Journal 51(4): 640–70.Google Scholar
Skiba, Russell J., Mediratta, Kavitha, and Karega Rausch, M., eds. 2016. Inequality in School Discipline: Research and Practice to Reduce Disparities. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 2003. Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Soss, Joe. 1999. “Lessons of Welfare: Policy Design, Political Learning, and Political Action.” American Political Science Review 93(2): 363–80.Google Scholar
Soss, Joe. 2000. Unwanted Claims: The Politics of Participation in the U.S. Welfare System. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Soss, Joe, Fording, Richard C., and Schram, Sanford F.. 2011. Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberal Paternalism and the Persistent Power of Race. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Stearns, Elizabeth and Glennie, Elizabeth J.. 2010. “Opportunities to Participate: Extracurricular Activities’ Distribution Across and Academic Correlates in High Schools.” Social Science Review 39(2): 296–309.Google Scholar
Strolovitch, Dara Z. 2007. Affirmative Advocacy: Race, Class, and Gender in Interest Group Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tampio, Nicholas. 2016. “Democracy, Federal Power, and Education Reform.” Perspectives on Politics 14(2): 461–67.Google Scholar
Tampio, Nicholas. 2017. “Democracy and National Education Standards.” Journal of Politics. 79(1): 33–44.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 2004. Social Movements, 1768–2004. New York, NY: Paradigm Publishers.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., Casper, Jonathan D., and Fisher, Bonnie. 1989. “Maintaining Allegiance toward Political Authorities: The Role of Prior Attitudes and the Use of Fair Procedures.” American Journal of Political Science 33: 629–52.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Education. 2016. “2013–2014 Civil Rights Data Collection: A First Look.” Available at http://ocrdata.ed.gov/.Google Scholar
United States Departments of Education and Justice. 2014a. “School Discipline Guidance Package to Enhance School Climate and Improve School Discipline Policies/Practices.” Available at http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-departments-education-and-justice-release-school-discipline-guidance-package-, accessed April 8, 2016.Google Scholar
United States Departments of Education and Justice. 2014b. “Joint ‘Dear Colleague’ Letter.” Available at https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201401-title-vi.html, accessed October 20, 2017.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney. 2003. “Would the Dream of Political Equality Turn Out To Be a Nightmare?” Perspectives on Politics 1(4): 663–77.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Lehman Schlozman, Kay, and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Volunteerism in American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Von Hippel, Paul T. 2007. “Regression with Missing Y’s: An Improved Strategy for Analyzing Multiply Imputed Data.” Sociological Methodology 37(1): 83–117.Google Scholar
Waller, Willard. 1965 [1932] The Sociology of Teaching. New York. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Weaver, Velsa M. and Lerman, Amy E.. 2010. “Political Consequences of the Carceral State.” American Political Science Review 104(4): 817–33.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. 1978 [1925]. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Welch, Kelly and Payne, Allison Ann. 2010. “Racial Threat and Punitive School Discipline.” Social Problems 57(1): 25–48.Google Scholar
Welsh, Wayne. N. 2000. “Effects of Student and School Factors on Five Measures of School Disorder.” Justice Quarterly 4:911–47.Google Scholar
Western, Bruce. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
White, Ian R., Royston, Patrick, and Wood, Angela M.. 2011. “Multiple Imputation Using Chained Equations: Issues and Guidance for Practice.” Statistics in Medicine 30: 377–99.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Bruch and Soss supplementary material

Online Appendix

Download Bruch and Soss supplementary material(File)
File 29.1 KB