Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T14:26:28.949Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Messi, Ronaldo, and the Politics of Celebrity Elections: Voting for the Best Soccer Player in the World

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 July 2019

Abstract

It is widely assumed that celebrities are imbued with political capital and the power to move opinion. To understand the sources of that capital in the specific domain of sports celebrity, we investigate the popularity of global soccer superstars. Specifically, we examine players’ success in the Ballon d’Or—the most high-profile contest to select the world’s best player. Based on historical election results as well as an original survey of soccer fans, we find that certain kinds of players are significantly more likely to win the Ballon d’Or. Moreover, we detect an increasing concentration of votes on these kinds of players over time, suggesting a clear and growing hierarchy in the competition for soccer celebrity. Further analyses of support for the world’s two best players in 2016 (Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo) show that, if properly adapted, political science concepts like partisanship have conceptual and empirical leverage in ostensibly non-political contests.

Type
Special Section: Celebrities and Politics
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

A list of permanent links to Supplemental Materials provided by the authors precedes the References section.

*Data replication sets are available in Harvard Dataverse at::https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/4QJW0V

References

Agrawal, Jagdish and Kamakura, Wagner A.. 1995. “The Economic Worth of Celebrity Endorsers: An Event Study Analysis.” Journal of Marketing 59(3): 5662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Christopher J. and Sally, David F.. 2013. The Numbers Game: Why Everything You Know About Soccer Is Wrong. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Anderson, Christopher J., Blais, André, Bowler, Shaun, Donovan, Todd, and Listhaug, Ola. 2005. Losers’ Consent: Elections and Democratic Legitimacy . New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arendt, Hannah. 1970. On Violence. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.Google Scholar
Atkinson, Matthew D. and DeWitt., Darin 2018. “Does Celebrity Issue Advocacy Mobilize Issue Publics?Political Studies 67(1): 8399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, Matthew and DeWitt, Darin. 2016. “Celebrity Political Endorsements Matter.” Celebrity Studies 7(1): 119–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berelson, Bernard R., Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and McPhee, William N.. 1954. Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Boorstin, Daniel J. 1972. The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America . New York: Atheneum.Google Scholar
Bowers, Anne and Prato, Matteo. 2018. “The Structural Origins of Unearned Status: How Arbitrary Changes in Categories Affect Status Position and Market Impact.” Administrative Science Quarterly 63(3): 668699.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyle, Raymond and Haynes, Richard. 2000. Sport, the Media, and Popular Culture. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Brockington, Dan. 2014. Celebrity Advocacy and International Development. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burden, Barry C. and Klofstad, Casey A.. 2005. “Affect and Cognition in Party Identification.” Political Psychology 26(6): 869–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buscombe, Edward, ed. 1975. Football on Television: BFI Television Monograph 4. London: British Film Institute.Google Scholar
Campbell, Angus, Converse, Philip E., Miller, Warren E., and Stokes, Donald E.. 1960. The American Voter . New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Carnes, Nicholas and Lupu, Noam. 2016. “Do Voters Dislike Working-Class Candidates? Voter Biases and the Descriptive Underrepresentation of the Working Class.” American Political Science Review 110(4): 832–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CIES—International Centre for Sports Studies. Demographic Study of European Football (2009-2017), Neuchatel, Switzerland: CIES. http://www.football-observatory.com/IMG/sites/mr/mr29/en/.Google Scholar
Clarke, John. 1978. “Football and Working Class Fans: Tradition and Change.” In Football Hooliganism: The Wider Context, ed. Ingham, Roger, 3760. London: Inter-Action Imprint.Google Scholar
Cooper, Andrew. 2008. Celebrity Diplomacy. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.Google Scholar
Coppock, Alexander, Leeper, Thomas J., and Mullinix, Kevin J.. 2018. “Generalizability of Heterogeneous Treatment Effect Estimates Across Samples.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(49): 12441–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, Garry. 2004. Consuming Sport: Fans, Sport and Culture. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Critcher, Chas. 1979. “Football since the War.” In Working Class Culture: Studies in History and Theory, eds. Clarke, John, Critcher, Chas, and Johnson, Richard, 161184. London: Hutchinson.Google Scholar
Deloitte. 2017. Annual Review of Football Finance: Ahead of the Curve. Manchester, UK: Deloitte, Sports Business Group.Google Scholar
Dixon, Kevin. 2013. “Learning the Game: Football Fandom Culture and the Origins of Practice.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 48(3): 334–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Kathleen. 2014. “Gender Stereotypes, Candidate Evaluations, and Voting for Women Candidates: What Really Matters?Political Research Quarterly 67(1): 96107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Paul, Kavetsos, Georgios, Krekel, Christian, Mavridis, Dimitris, Metcalfe, Robert, Senik, Claudia, Szymanski, Stefan, and Ziebarth, Nicolas R., 2016. “The Host with the Most? The Effects of the Olympic Games on Happiness.” London School of Economics and Political Science, Centre for Economic Performance Discussion Paper No. 1441, July.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driessens, Olivier. 2013. “The Celebritization of Society and Culture: Understanding the Structural Dynamics of Celebrity Culture.” International Journal of Cultural Studies 16(6): 641–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duke, Vic. 2002. “Local Tradition versus Globalisation: Resistance to the McDonaldisation and Disneyisation of Professional Football in England.” Football Studies 5(1): 523.Google Scholar
Farrell, Kathleen A., Karels, Gordon V., Monfort, Kenneth W., and McClatchey, Christine A.. 2000. “Celebrity Performance and Endorsement Value: The Case of Tiger Woods.” Managerial Finance 26(7): 115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fechtig, Beate. 1995. Frauen und Fußball. Berlin: Ebersbach & Simon.Google Scholar
Fiske, John. 1987. Television Culture. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Frank, Robert H. and Cook., Philip J. 1996. Winner Take All Society: Why the Few At the Top Get So Much More Than the Rest of Us . New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Friedman, Uri. 2014. “Why Americans Call Soccer ‘Soccer’: The British started it.” The Atlantic, June 13.Google Scholar
Frosdick, Steve and Marsh, Peter. 2013. Football Hooliganism. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galeano, Eduardo. 2003. Soccer in the Sun and Shadow. New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Garthwaite, Craig and Moore, Timothy J.. 2013. “Can Celebrity Endorsements Affect Political Outcomes? Evidence from the 2008 US Democratic Presidential Primary.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 29(2): 355–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilens, Martin and Page, Benjamin I.. 2014. “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.” Perspectives on Politics 12(3): 564–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ginsburgh, Victor and Noury, Abdul G.. 2008. “The Eurovision Song Contest: Is Voting Political or Cultural?European Journal of Political Economy 24(1): 4152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giulianotti, Richard. 1999. Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Giulianotti, Richard. 2002. “Supporters, Followers, Fans and Flaneurs: A Taxonomy of Spectator Identities in Football.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 26(1): 2546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giulianotti, Richard. 2005. “Sport Spectators and the Social Consequences of Commodification: Critical Perspectives from Scottish Football.” Journal of Sport & Social Issues 29(4): 386410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldblatt, David. 2008. The Ball Is Round: A Global History of Soccer . New York: Penguin/Riverhead Books.Google Scholar
Green, Donald, Palmquist, Bradley, and Schickler, Eric. 2002. Partisan Hearts and Minds . New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Greene, Steven. 1999. “Understanding Party Identification: A Social Identity Approach.” Political Psychology 20(2): 393403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, Andrew J., Malhotra, Neil, and Mo, Cecilia Hyunjung. 2010. “Irrelevant Events Affect Voters’ Evaluations of Government Performance.” PNAS July, 107(29): 12804–09.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornby, Nick. 1992. Fever Pitch: A Fan’s Life . London: Gollancz.Google Scholar
Horne, John, Tomlinson, Alan, Whannel, Garry, and Woodward, Kath. 1999. Understanding Sport: An Introduction to the Sociological and Cultural Analysis of Sport. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Huddy, Leonie, Mason, Lilliana, and Aarøe, Lene. 2015. “Expressive Partisanship: Campaign Involvement, Political Emotion, and Partisan Identity.” American Political Science Review 109(1): 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent L. and Valentino., Nicholas A. 2004. “The Centrality of Race in American Politics.” Annual Review of Political Science 7: 383408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iyengar, Shanto, Sood, Gaurav, and Lelkes, Yphtach. 2012. “Affect, Not Ideology: A Social Identity Perspective On Polarization.” Public Opinion Quarterly 76(3): 405–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kavetsos, Georgios and Szymanski, Stefan. 2010. “National Well-Being and International Sports Events.” Journal of Economic Psychology 31(2): 158–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kittilson, Miki Caul. 2006. Challenging Parties, Changing Parliaments: Women and Elected Office in Contemporary Western Europe . Columbus: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Kuper, Simon. 1994. Football Against the Enemy. London: Orion.Google Scholar
Kuper, Simon and Szymanski, Stefan. 2018. Soccernomics. New York: Nation Books.Google Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L. and Fox, Richard L.. 2004. “Entering the Arena? Gender and the Decision to Run for Office.” American Journal of Political Science 48(2): 264–80.Google Scholar
Lawrence, Regina G. and Boydstun, Amber E.. 2017. “Celebrities as Political Actors and Entertainment as Political Media.” In How Political Actors Use the Media: A Functional Analysis of the Media’s Role in Politics, eds. Van Aelst, Peter and Walgrave, Stefaan, London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Lenz, Gabriel S. 2012. Follow the Leader? How Voters Respond to Politicians’ Performance and Policies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leeper, Thomas J. and Slothuus, Rune. 2014. “Political Parties, Motivated Reasoning, and Public Opinion FormationPolitical Psychology 35(1): 129–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupia, Arthur. 2016. Uninformed: Why People Know So Little About Politics and What We Can Do About It. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Markovits, Andrei S. and Rensmann., Lars 2010. Gaming the World: How Sports Are Reshaping Global Politics and Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, David, Hart, Paul ‘t, and Tindall, Karen. 2010. “Celebrity Politics: The Politics of the Late Modernity?Political Studies Review 8(3): 322–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, P. David. 2014. Celebrity and Power: Fame in Contemporary Culture . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, P. David. 2015. “Celebrity and Public Persona.” Oxford Bibliographies in Communication. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Miguel, Edward, Saiegh, Sebastián M., and Satyanath, Shanker. 2011. “Civil War Exposure and Violence.” Economics & Politics 23(1): 5973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Simon. 2011. “Celebrity: Academic ‘Pseudo-Event’ or a Useful Concept for Historians?Cultural and Social History 8(1): 95114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nownes, Anthony J. 2012. “An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Celebrity Support for Political Parties in the United States.” American Politics Research 40(3): 476500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Partzsch, Lena. 2015. “The Power of Celebrities in Global Politics.” Celebrity Studies 6(2): 178–-91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Partzsch, Lena. 2017. “Powerful Individuals in a Globalised World.” Global Policy 8(1): 513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Partzsch, Lena. 2018. “Take Action Now: The Legitimacy of Celebrity Power in International Relations.” Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations 24(2): 229–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pease, Andrew and Brewer, Paul R.. 2008. “The Oprah Factor: The Effects of a Celebrity Endorsement in a Presidential Primary Campaign.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 13(4): 386400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prior, Markus. 2005. “News vs. Entertainment: How Increasing Media Choice Widens Gaps in Political Knowledge and Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 49(3): 577–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prior, Markus. 2007. Post-Broadcast Democracy: How Media Choice Increases Inequality in Political Involvement and Polarizes Elections. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sala, Brian R., Scott, John T., and Spriggs, James F.. 2007. “The Cold War on Ice: Constructivism and the Politics of Olympic Figure Skating Judging.” Perspectives on Politics 5(1): 1729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scannell, Paddy. 2014. Television and the Meaning of Live . Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Smart, Barry. 2005. The Sport Star: Modern Sport and the Cultural Economy of Sporting Celebrity . London: Sage.Google Scholar
Spierdijk, Laura and Vellekoop, Michel. 2009. “The Structure of Bias in Peer Voting Systems: Lessons From the Eurovision Song Contest.” Empirical Economics 36(2): 403–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, John. 2004. “Celebrity Politicians: Popular Culture and Political Representation.” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 6(4): 435–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, John. 2012. “Do Celebrity Politics and Celebrity Politicians Matter?British Journal of Politics and International Relations 14(4): 346–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, John. 2018. “What Is Donald Trump? Forms of ‘Celebrity’ in Celebrity Politics.” Political Studies Review 17(1): 313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, John, Inthorn, Sanna, and Scott, Martin. 2015. From Entertainment to Citizenship: Politics and Popular Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Ian. 1971. “Soccer Consciousness and Soccer Hooliganism.” In Images of Deviance, ed. Cohen, Stanley, 134163. Harmondsworth, UK: Pelican.Google Scholar
Tsaliki, Liza, Frangonikolopoulos, Christos A., and Huliaras, Asteris, eds, 2011. Transnational Celebrity Activism in Global Politics: Changing the World? Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Turner, Graeme. 2004. Understanding Celebrity. London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, Graeme. 2010. “Approaching Celebrity Studies.” Celebrity Studies 1(1): 1120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, Max. 1978/1922. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
West, Darrell M. and Orman, John M.. 2003. Celebrity Politics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Whannel, Garry. 1992. Fields in Vision: Television Sport and Cultural Transformation . London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Whannel, Garry. 1998. “Individual Stars and Collective Identities in Media Sport.” Sport, Popular Culture and Identity, vol. 5 , ed. Roche, Maurice, 2336. Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer.Google Scholar
Wheeler, Mark. 2013. Celebrity Politics: Image and Identity in Contemporary Political Communications . Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Williams, Jean. 2003. A Game for Rough Girls: The History of Women’s Football in Britain . London, Routledge.Google Scholar
Wilson, Jonathan. 2013. Inverting the Pyramid: The History of Soccer Tactics . New York: Nation Books.Google Scholar
Wood, Matthew, Corbett, Jack, and Flinders, Matthew. 2016. “Just Like Us: Everyday Celebrity Politicians and the Pursuit of Popularity in an Age of Anti-Politics.” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 18(3): 581–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: Link

Anderson et al. Dataset

Link
Supplementary material: File

Anderson et al. supplementary material

Appendices A-D

Download Anderson et al. supplementary material(File)
File 121.9 KB