Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T16:39:33.415Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Imagining Terror in an Era of Globalization: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Construction of Terrorism after 9/11

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 August 2009

Catherine V. Scott
Affiliation:
Agnes Scott College, Decatur, GA. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Many analyses of U.S. foreign policy after September 11 have rested upon readings of the U.S. as a traditional imperialist power. In so doing, the constructions of Al Qaeda as a decentralized corporation and a virtual network are often ignored. Corporate and network constructions place less stress on conventional threats to the nation-state and instead portray terrorism in distinctively post-Fordist terms. This in turn helps explain the short-lived and partial patriotic responses to the terrorist attacks, as well as the contradictory place of race in portrayals of the threat facing the U.S. Together these discourses point to new ways of thinking about U.S. nationalism and terrorism in the twenty-first century.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Althaus, Scott L. 2002. American news consumption during times of national crisis. PS: Political Science and Politics 35 (3): 517–21.Google Scholar
Amin, Ash. 1994. Post-Fordism: Models,fantasies, and phantoms of transition. In Post-Fordism: A Reader, ed. Amin, Ash. London: Blackwell Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Axtman, Kris. 2002. “A Boom in Citizenship Requests.” Christian Science Monitor, February 11.Google Scholar
Benjamin, Daniel, and Simon, Steven. 2002. The Age of Sacred Terror. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Bergen, Peter L. 2001. Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama bin Laden. New York: Touchstone.Google Scholar
Bergen, Peter L. 2002. “Al Qaeda's New Tactics.” New York Times, November 15.Google Scholar
Bobbitt, Philip. 2002. “Get Ready for the Next Long War.” Time, September 9, 8485.Google Scholar
Brill, Steven. 2002. “Osama's Hidden Tax.” Newsweek, January 14.
Buell, Frederick. 1998. Nationalist post-nationalism: Globalist discourse in contemporary American culture American Quarterly 50: 123. Available at: http://muse.jhu.edu/...ican_quarterly/v050/50.3buell.html. Accessed November 16, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bumiller, Elisabeth, and Perlez, Jane. 2001. “Bush and Top Aides Proclaim Policy of ‘Ending’ States That Back Terror; An Arrest Shuts New York Airports.” New York Times, September 14.Google Scholar
Bush, George W. 2001a. President announces “America's Fund for Afghan Children.” October 10: 1. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/200111011-8.html. Accessed January 2, 2002.Google Scholar
Bush, George W. 2001b. “Islam is Peace,” says the President. September 17: 1. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/print/200110917-11.html. Accessed February 2, 2002.Google Scholar
Bush, George W. 2001c. Remarks by the President upon arrival: The south lawn. September 16: 13. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/print/200110916-2.html. Accessed November 11, 2002.Google Scholar
Bush, George W. 2001d. Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People. September 20. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html. Accessed September 23, 2001.Google Scholar
Bush, George W. 2003. President Bush discusses freedom in Iraq and the Middle East. November 6: 18 Available at: http:http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/11/print20031106.html. Accessed February 2, 2004.Google Scholar
Bush, George W. 2005. President Outlines Strategy for Iraq. November 30: 18. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/relesaes/2005/11/print/20051130-2.html. Accessed December 15, 2005.Google Scholar
Bush, George W. 2007. Press conference by the President. May 24: 111. available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/05/print/20070524.html. Accessed July 23, 2007.Google Scholar
Butterfield, Fox. 2001. “A Police Force Rebuffs FBI on Querying Middle Eastern Men.” New York Times, November 21.Google Scholar
Carbonara, Peter. 2001. Financing terror. Money Magazine, November.Google Scholar
Carter, Ashton B. 2002. The architecture of government in the face of terrorism. International Security 26 (3): 523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chivers, C. J. 2007. “Dutch Soldiers Stress Restraint in Afghanistan.” New York Times, April 6.Google Scholar
Christopherson, Susan. 1994. The fortress city: Privatized spaces, consumer citizenship. In Post-Fordism: A Reader, ed. Amin, Ash. London: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Cohen, Lizbeth. 2003. A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Cottle, Michelle. 2002. “Prayer Circle.” The New Republic, September 9 & 16, 9.Google Scholar
Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). 2005. Fox airs “24” disclaimer. February 8.Google Scholar
Crenson, Matthew A., and Ginsberg, Benjamin. 2002. Downsizing Democracy: How America Sidelined Its Citizens and Privatized its Public. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronin, Audrey Kurth. 2002. Behind the curve: Globalization and international terrorism. In Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Understanding the New Security Environment, ed. Russell, Howard D. and Sawyer, Reid L.. 2d ed.Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Destler, I.M. 2001. The reasonable public and the polarized policy process. In The Real and the Ideal: Essays on International Relations in Honor of Richard H. Ullman, ed. Lake, Anthony and Ochmanek, David. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Donnelly, Sally B. 2006. “Lean and Mean.” Time/Inside Business, August.Google Scholar
Elliott, Andrea. 2006. “More Muslims Are Coming to U.S. after a Decline in Wake of 9/11.” New York Times, September 10.Google Scholar
“Excerpts from Bush's Remarks on Retaliation.” 2001b. New York Times, September 18.Google Scholar
Gall, Carlotta. 2006a. “Attacks in Afghanistan Grow More Frequent and Lethal.” New York Times, September 27.Google Scholar
Gall, Carlotta. 2006b. “U.S. Hands Southern Afghan Command to NATO.” New York Times, August 1.Google Scholar
Gibson, James William. 1986. The Perfect War: The War We Couldn't Lose and How We Did. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Golub, Philip S. 2004. Imperial politics, imperial will, and the crisis of U.S. hegemony. Review of International Political Economy 11 (4): 763–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Michael R. 2007. “U.S. Command Shortens Life of ‘Long War’ as a Reference.” New York Times, April 24.Google Scholar
Grewal, Inderpal. 2003. Transnational America: Race, gender and citizenship after 9/11. Social Identities 9 (4): 535–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haberman, Clyde. 2001a. “Grisly Uprisings, Famed Hide-Outs, and Altered American Attitudes.” New York Times, November 26.Google Scholar
Haberman, Clyde. 2001b. “Taliban Holdouts, Europe's Reservations, and Shopping's Importance.” New York Times, November 24.Google Scholar
Haberman, Clyde. 2001c. “Pursuit of Terror Funds, Anthrax Victim on Tape, Partisan Sniping.” New York Times, November 8.Google Scholar
Hakim, Danny. 2001. “Ford Motor Workers Get On-The-Job Training in Religious Tolerance.” New York Times, November 19.Google Scholar
Hallin, Daniel C. 1994. Images of the Vietnam and the Persian Gulf wars in U.S. television. In Seeing Through the Media: The Persian Gulf War, ed. Jeffords, Susan and Rabinovitz, Lauren. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Hardt, Michael, and Negri, Antonio. 2004. Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire. New York: Penguin Press.Google Scholar
Harvey, David. 2005. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hitchens, Christopher. 2001. So this is war. In These Times, October 15.Google Scholar
Hosenball, Mark. 2002. “Al Qaeda's New Life.” Newsweek, December 30/January 6.Google Scholar
Hunt, Michael. 1987. Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Iraq Study Group Report. The Way Forward—A New Approach. 2006. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Ivie, Robert L. 2005. Savagery in democracy's empire. Third World Quarterly 26 (1): 5565.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Scott. 2007. “We're Losing the Infowar.” Newsweek, January 15.Google Scholar
Kadlec, Daniel. 2003. “Terrorism Futures: Good Concept, Bad P.R.” Newsweek, August 11.Google Scholar
Kagan, Robert. 2006. “Cowboy Nation: The Myth of American Innocence.” New Republic, October 23.Google Scholar
Kaplan, Jeffrey. 2006. Islamophobia in America? September 11 and islamophobic hate crime. Terrorism and Political Violence 18: 133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kean, Thomas H., and Hamilton, Lee H.. 2004. The 9/11 Report. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. New York: St. Martin's.Google Scholar
Kilcullen, David. 2005. Countering global insurgency. Journal of Strategic Studies 28 (4): 597617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koppel, Ted. 2006. “These Guns for Hire.” New York Times, May 22.Google Scholar
Maier, Charles S. 2000. Consigning the twentieth century to history: Alternative narratives for the modern era. American Historical Review 105 (3): 807–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, Jeremy. 2003. 9-11: The Giant Awakens. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Google Scholar
McAlister, Melani. 2001. Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
McCartney, Paul T. 2004. American nationalism and U.S. foreign policy from September 11 to the Iraq War. Political Science Quarterly 119 (3): 399423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGirk, Tim. 2005. “War In the Shadows.” Time, October 10.Google Scholar
Mead, Walter Russell. 2002. Special Providence: How American Foreign Policy Changed the World. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Miller, Judith. 2001. “The 27 Whose Assets Will Be Frozen Are Just the First of Many, a U.S. Official Says.” New York Times, September 25.Google Scholar
Miller, Judith, et al. 2001. “Planning for Terror but Failing to Act.” New York Times, December 30.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Alison. 2001. “After Asking for Volunteers, Government Tries to Determine What They Will Do.” New York Times, November 10.Google Scholar
Monten, Jonathan. 2005. The roots of the Bush Doctrine: Power, nationalism, and democracy promotion in U.S. strategy. International Security 29 (4): 112–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The National Security Strategy of the United States. 2002. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nssall.html. Accessed October 1, 2002.Google Scholar
Palimisano, Samuel. 2006. The globally integrated enterprise. Foreign Affairs 85 (3): 127–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parenti, Christian. 2006. “Taliban Rising.” Nation, October 30.Google Scholar
Passavant, Paul. 2005. The strong neo-liberal state: Crime, consumption, governance. Theory and Event 8 (3): 143 [Available at http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/theory_and_event/v008/8.3passavant.html] Accessed February 8, 2006.Google Scholar
Program on International Public Attitudes (PIPA). 2003. “Americans on Terrorism: Two Years after 9/11.” September 9.Google Scholar
Ratnesar, Romesh, and Weisskopf, Michael. 2003. “Portrait of a Platoon.” Time, December 29.Google Scholar
Risen, Clay. 2006. “War-Mart: The Danger of Generals as CEOs.” New Republic, April 3.Google Scholar
Robb, John. 2005. “The Open Source War.” New York Times, October 15.Google Scholar
Rogoff, Kenneth. 2004. The cost of living dangerously. Foreign Policy November/December: 7071.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothkopf, David J. 2002. Business versus terror. Foreign Policy May/June: 5664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, Barnett. 2007. Saving Afghanistan. Foreign Affairs 86 (1): 5778.Google Scholar
Rumsfeld, Donald. 2002. Transforming the military Foreign Affairs 81 (3): 2032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanger, David E. 2007. “With Korea as Model, Bush Team Ponders Long Support Role in Iraq.” New York Times, June 3.Google Scholar
Scahill, Jeremy. 2006. “Mercenary Jackpot.” Nation, August 28/September 4.Google Scholar
Skerry, Peter. 2006. “The American Exception.” Time, August 21.Google Scholar
Slotkin, Richard. 1992. Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth Century America. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.Google Scholar
Smolowe, Jill, Richardson, Shannon, and Harrington, Maureen. 2005. “One Mom's War.” People, August 29.Google Scholar
Spigel, Lynn. 2004. Entertainment wars: Television culture after 9/11. American Quarterly 56 (2): 235–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephanson, Anders. 1995. Manifest Destiny: American Expansion and the Empire of Right. New York: Hill and Wang.Google Scholar
Stolberg, Shery Gay. 2007. “See You in September, Whatever That Means.” New York Times, May 13.Google Scholar
Suskind, Ron. 2006. “How to Stay One Step Ahead.” Time, August 21.Google Scholar
Thomas, Evan. 2006. “So Now What, Mr. President?” Newsweek, December 11.Google Scholar
Winik, Lyric Wallwork. 2005. “Don't Ask Me to Take Off the Uniform.” Parade Magazine, April 17.Google Scholar
Wizner, Frank, et al. 2003. Afghanistan: Are We Losing the Peace? New York: Council on Foreign Relations.Google Scholar
Wolfberg, Adrian. 2006. Full-spectrum analysis: A new way of thinking for a new world. Military Review July–August: 3542.Google Scholar
“Would You Like to Thank Our Troops?” 2005. Good Housekeeping, July.Google Scholar
Yeoman, Barry. 2003. Soldiers of good fortune. Mother Jones 28: 3846.Google Scholar
Yousafzai, Sami, and Moreau, Ron. 2005. “Unholy Alliance.” Newsweek, September 26: 4042.Google Scholar
Zakaria, Fareed. 2004. “Americans Eat Cheese, Too.” Newsweek, October 11.Google Scholar
Zakaria, Fareed. 2008. The Post-American World. New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar