^{page 101 note 1} J. A. Symonds in the Encyclopœdia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. 20, p. 380, says:Google Scholar

“If we insist upon the literal meaning of the word, the Renaissance was a re-birth; and it is needful to inquire of what it was the re-birth. The metaphor of Renaissance may signify the entrance of the European nations upon a fresh stage of vital energy in general, implying a fuller consciousness and a freer exercise of faculties than had belonged to the mediaeval period. Or it may mean the resuscitation of simply intellectual activities, stimulated by the revival of antique learning and its application to the arts and literatures of modern peoples. Upon our choice between the two interpretations of the word depend important differences in any treatment of the subject. The former has the disadvantage of making it difficult to separate the Renaissance from other historical phases—the Reformation, for example—with which it ought not to be confounded. The latter has the merit of assigning a specific name to a limited series of events and group of facts, which can be distinguished for the purpose of analysis from other events and facts with which they are intimately but not indissolubly connected. In other words, the one definition of Renaissance makes it denote the whole change which came over Europe at the close of the Middle Ages. The other confines it to what was known by our ancestors as the Revival of Learning. Yet when we concentrate attention on the recovery of antique culture, we become aware that this was only one phenomenon or symptom of a far wider and more comprehensive alteration in the conditions of the European races. We find it needful to retain both terms, Renaissance and Revival of Learning, and to show the relations between the series of events, and facts which they severally imply.”

^{page 102 note 1} The Renaissance, p. 13.Google Scholar

^{page 102 note 2} Purgatorio, Canto xvi., 127–9Google Scholar

^{page 104 note 1} “Humanism was a necessary preparatory school for the Reformation. Luther and Melancthon, Zwingli and Æcolampadius, Calvin and Beza could never have done their work without a good knowledge of the languages of the Bible, which they obtained from the humanists.”—Renaissance, by Schaff, , p. 118.Google Scholar

^{page 105 note 1} The king bade one, to whom he had granted a request, to rise, adding: “Kneel to no man; kneel only to God.”

^{page 106 note 1} When at Turin in 1890, Kossuth, through a former adjutant who was then visiting him, and whom I knew, invited me to his house, No. 22 Via dei Millo. The vigorous old man, then eighty-eight years old, received me warmly, since, as he said, “I love America and Americans.” He told me of his life and struggle in Hungary, of his experiences in different lands, of the invitation extended to him by Victor Emmanuel to make Turin his residence, and how he had remained in Turin when the capital had been removed to Florence and Rome, because, at his time of life, it was difficult to get wonted to new associations elsewhere.

^{page 107 note 1} North American Review for 07, 1892.Google Scholar

^{page 107 note 2} On November 23, 1892, King Humbert, in opening the Italian Parliament, made the following reference to the “economic and intellectual renaissance” of Italy: “Equilibrium will be attained without increasing taxation. Bills will be introduced giving elasticity to the revenue and promoting reforms in taxation. Measures will also be introduced to bring about reforms in the army, and to insure that our military strength will not be weakened by the proposed reduction in the army expenditures. Other bills will be presented, dealing with the national schools, the judicial system, the maritime postal service, and providing for the completion of the railway and canal systems.”

In concluding his speech King Humbert said: “Victor Emmanuel cherished the noble ambition of restoring Italy to the Italians. He attained the fulfilment of his wish in our Rome. For myself I am attracted by an ambition to connect my name with the economic and intellectual renaissance of our country, and to see our dear Italy strong, prosperous, and great, such as those who suffered and died for her in the past pictured her future to themselves. I derive comfort from the affections and wisdom of my people and Parliament. Let us ever preserve a strong faith in ourselves, activity, concord in our desire for well-doing, and feel and act so that our work, far-seeing at present, be crowned with the blessing of the future.”

^{page 108 note 1} Some churches and monasteries have been built of late years under existing laws regulating them, and are not under the direct control of the government. These constitute the exceptions.

^{page 109 note 1} God makes the wrath of men to praise Him. It was the fearful war of 1870 between France and Germany, which compelled Napoleon III. to call his troops from Rome and permitted Italian soldiers to enter the Eternal City and enable the government to make it the capital of the united country.

Victor Emmanuel entered Rome Sept. 20, 1870, shortly after the battle of Sedan.

He died in 1878. Humbert, his son, ascended the throne.

^{page 112 note 1} Some idea of the then prevailing ignorance is shown in the report published in December, 1870, of the examinations made in Rome for admission of pupils to educational institutions opened by the royal government which had taken possession of the city the autumn previous. Signor Brioschi, in making the report, said: “We have examined, not infrequently, youths of 15, 16, and even 18 years of age who could not tell the different parts of speech, and did not know the conjugation of the verbs. Some excused themselves by saying that the Italian language had not been taught in the schools; others that it ought to be learned after Latin. So it was useless to examine them as to syntax, etymology, orthography, etc. … When asked about well known facts of Italian history there were, with but rare exceptions, none who would state anything. One said Brutus was a despot; another that Dante was a French poet, Petrarch an illustrious poetess. Of Columbus I was told by one that he was an apostle and by another that he was the Holy Spirit.” He also added that on the part of the almost young men who had been pupils for years in the Papal schools there “was great inability to write from dictation the simplest numbers, such as 70,298.”

The state of education was worse in the Neapolitan and Cicilian provinces when, in 1860, they became part of the Italian monarchy.

It shows a notable advance in education among the people when, as far back as 1881, 778,619 took books from the public libraries. It is estimated by some, though the exact figures are not at hand, that at present the number attending the libraries is several times greater than in 1881.

^{page 113 note 1} Education at the formation of the present kingdom has been described as a desert broken every now and then by an oasis of matchless fertility and luxuriance. The learning of the learned was high, and the ignorance of the ignorant profound.

^{page 114 note 1} In some of the high schools a slight entrance fee is demanded, or an examination fee is asked, or a small annual sum is required to be paid.

^{page 114 note 2} There are about seventeen national universities in Italy.

See Hippeau, , L'Instruction publique en Italie, Paris, 1875Google Scholar, and Pécant, , Deux Mois de Mission en Italie, Paris, 1880.Google Scholar

^{page 116 note 1} Discorsi, Lib. i., cap. 12.

^{page 117 note 1} Count Campello and Catholic Reform in Italy, pp. 188, 191, by Alexander Robertson, 1891.Google Scholar

^{page 118 note 1} It seemed historically fitting that the Hon. and Rev. V. Bligh should preside at the first formal meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in 1891 at Florence, since he was attaché of the British Legation at Florence forty years ago, and conducted personally all the correspondence in reference to the release of an Englishman who was found in the house of the Madiai with a Bible in his pocket.

^{page 118 note 2} It was also fitting that Dr. Geymonat should preside at the reception given to the delegates to the Alliance on Saturday evening, April 4, 1891.

^{page 118 note 3} Dr. Prochet, in an address which I heard, presented, as he said, “two tableaux,” illustrative of the change which has taken place in the attitude of the people at large towards evangelists.

“In 1862 the little town of Rio Marina presented, one summer evening, a striking sight. Hundreds of men and women were rushing towards a certain house, shouting, yelling. They brought wood and piled it round the dwelling with the intention of burning it and its inmates. What was the matter? Who was there? A murderer escaped from the prison of Porto Ferrajo? No; in that house were sheltered two theological students of the Waldensian Church, who, during their holidays, preached the Gospel. The mob, urged by the priests, wanted to burn them alive, and would have done so had they not been prevented by some men of courage and influence, whose energetic interference saved the lives of the evangelists and the Church of Rome from another bloody stain. Go now to Rio Marina, and you will find in the Waldensian schools 180 pupils, 160 of whom are the children or grandchildren of the same people who wanted to burn the first evangelists visiting the island.”

^{page 119 note 1} From a statement by the Rev. Dr. J. G. Gray, pastor of the Scotch Church in Rome, who, by his hearty welcome and warm sympathy, has endeared himself to so many Americans visiting the city.

^{page 119 note 2} In addition to the above, there is a military church in Rome, under Signor Cappellini, who has had signal success in his work.

^{page 120 note 1} The Rev. John H. Eager, of Florence, in the Baptist Missionary Magazine, vol. lxxi., p. 103Google Scholar, says: “In the early stages of mission work in Florence, much opposition was encountered, and some of the more zealous were permitted to taste the joy of being persecuted and imprisoned for Christ's sake, a few of whom are living. One of them told me the other day that there was a time when he did not feel at all sure of his life while passing through some of the remote quarters of this city. But since then a wonderful change has taken place, and evangelicals are not only safe in Florence, but, as an Italian gentleman said to me, ‘respected and kindly received everywhere.’” Instead of saying as formerly, “Va fuori d'Italia, va fuori Stranier,” “Get you gone from Italy, you foreigners,” is heard: “Come, friends, and help us to win victory for truth and liberty.”

There are in Florence, besides the Roman Catholic churches, two Waldensian, one Free Italian, one Methodist, two Baptist churches, and one Plymouth Brethren meeting,' where the Italian language is spoken. There is also a Waldensian theological school. There are, in addition to the above, the German Reformed and French Reformed churches, two Anglican churches, one American Episcopal church, and one Scotch church.

^{page 121 note 1} An Italian Campaign, p. 207.Google Scholar

^{page 121 note 2} It has been justly said: “What Dr. Stewart of Leghorn was to the Waldensian Church, Mr. McDougall has become to the Free Italian Church.”

^{page 123 note 1} Schaff, in Christendom from the Standpoint of Italy, p. 33Google Scholar

^{page 124 note 1} Work, vol. iii., pp. 86–88.Google Scholar

^{page 124 note 2} No book once placed in the Index Expurgatorius is ever removed, since there is an unwillingness to confess a mistake. Curious contradictions arise from this arbitrary practice. For example, though Galileo's works are placed in the Index, the present Pope, Leo XIII., in one of his recent encyclicals, has spoken of the astronomer in terms of unbounded praise. The fact is, as has been declared recently, the Church has always oscillated between two great main parties who in turn have had the upper hand in her councils. The one is the party inclined to yield to the new ideas put forth by science, the other the one that has remained firmly adherent to the rock of mediaeval ideas and prejudices. This oscillation between two opposite poles of thought is the great secret of the major and minor severity with which the Index is compiled. A work created rather for a human than a divine scope, the Index reflects this, its inherent characteristics, and the dominant pre-occupation of the Catholic Church may always be traced in its pages. Thus to-day, when the Church is busier with political than theological interests, it will be found that the most recent works put under ban rather treat of this theme—such as questions concerning the temporal power, the divine right of kings, republican and socialistic pretensions, and so forth. All this is done in spite of the Pope's recent friendliness towards the French Republic and his praise of the United States.

^{page 126 note 1} From a statement sent to me.

^{page 126 note 2} My friend, the Rev. G. Luzzi, the pastor of the Waldensian Church in Florence, at my special request, made a translation of Prof. Mariano's address. I have made the summary from this.

^{page 127 note 1} Geymonat, in Christendom from the Standpoint of Italy, p. 336, says:Google Scholar

“In this country of the arts, which idealizes objects or things of fancy, and is the servant of the imaginary ideal, we must not venture to set forth truth in its naked and bare simplicity; nor must we neglect aesthetic study, and disdain to use the help which can be attained from eloquence, poetry, music, and those fine arts which are more spiritual, more conversant with the religion of the spirit, and consecrated by the Word of God.”

^{page 128 note 1} The Rev. William Burt, of Rome, in The Missionary Report of the Methodist Episcopal Church for 1891, p. 225Google Scholar, writes: “The day is not far distant when this nation, which has had such a prominent part in the history of the Church, shall return to the primitive faith. The problem is how to prepare for and hasten that day.”

^{page 129 note 1} Christendom from the Standpoint of Italy, p. 64.Google Scholar

^{page 130 note 1} The Colporteurs in Italy number about sixty men. In one year, 1888, 7,057 Bibles, 17,551 Testaments, and 112,437 portions of the Bible were sold.

The Claudian Press, at Florence, published during the year 138,730 books and tracts, 157,100 portions of the Bible, 112,300 copies of periodicals, and 28,000 copies of the Church Almanac.