Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T19:25:18.279Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

What, if anything, is micropaleontology?1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 February 2016

Jere H. Lipps
Jere H. Lipps*
Affiliation:
Department of Geology and Institute of Ecology, University of California, Davis, California 95616
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Micropaleontology is a peculiar subject: it is not easily defined, it focuses on geologic problems, and it ignores fundamental paleontologic and evolutionary questions it could best attack. As a result of its historic development, micropaleontology is directed to the solution of stratigraphic, paleoceanographic and paleoclimatologic problems, but it has seldom addressed paleobiologic or evolutionary ideas. It is a tradition rather than a discipline. The term “micropaleontology” and all it signifies should be abandoned, for it obscures natural relationships, attracts people with geologic rather than biologic approaches, isolates its practitioners in a blanket of systematics, biostratigraphies, and terminologies, and, as a result, discourages outsiders with other viewpoints or contributions from utilizing its fine fossil record. The growth of the field has been exponential in people-power and literature but not in the development of fundamentally new ideas. Micropaleontology has therefore contributed little to recent paleobiologic or evolutionary hypotheses, in spite of the possession by the many organisms relegated to it of biological properties and fossil records which have much potential for the generation and testing of such hypotheses. Microfossil studies have served geology powerfully and they should continue in that role, but they should also be used to fulfill their promise in the interpretation of paleobiogeography, paleoecology, morphology, evolutionary processes and the origin of new groups and ground plans.

Type
Articles
Information
Paleobiology , Volume 7 , Issue 2 , Spring 1981 , pp. 167 - 199
Copyright
Copyright © The Paleontological Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Literature Cited

Adams, F. D. 1938. The Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences. 506 pp. Dover Publ.; New York.Google Scholar
Alvarez, L. W. et al. 1980. Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. Science. 208:1095–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anonymous. 1979. US drops back in biology and maths. Nature. 282:433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
d' Archiac, A. and Haime, J. 1853–1854. Description des animaux fossiles de groupe nummulitique de l'lnde précédé d'un résumé geologique et d'úne monograph des Nummulites. 2 vols. 373 pp. Gide and J. Baudry; Paris.Google Scholar
Arthur, M. A. 1979. Paleoceanographic events—recognition, resolution, and reconsideration. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 17:1474–1494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrensmeyer, A. K. and Hill, A. P., eds. 1980. Fossils in the Making: Vertebrate Taphonomy and Paleoecology. 384 pp. Univ. Chicago Press; Chicago, Ill.Google Scholar
Berger, W. H. 1969. Planktonic foraminifera: basic morphology and ecologic implications. J. Paleontol. 43:1369–1383.Google Scholar
Berger, W. H. 1977. Carbon dioxide excursions and the deep sea record: Aspects of the problem. pp. 505–542. In: Andersen, N. R. and Malahoff, A., eds. The Fate of Fossil Fuel CO2 in the Ocean. Plenum Press; New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berger, W. H. 1979a. Impact of deep-sea drilling on paleoceanography. pp. 1–26. In: Talwani, M., Hay, W., and Ryan, W. B. F., eds. Deep Drilling Results in the Atlantic Ocean: Continental Margins and Paleoenvironment. Maurice Ewing Series 3, Am. Geophys. Union; Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Berger, W. H. 1979b. Preservation of foraminifera. pp. 105–155. In: Lipps, J. H. et al., Foraminiferal Ecology and Paleoecology. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Short Course 6; Houston, Texas.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berger, W. H. 1979c. Stable isotopes in foraminifera. pp. 156–198. In: Lipps, J. H. et al., Foraminiferal Ecology and Paleoecology. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Short Course 6; Houston, Texas.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berger, W. H. and Roth, P. H. 1975. Oceanic micropaleontology: Progress and prospect. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 13:561–585, 624–635.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berggren, W. A. and Hollister, C. D. 1974. Paleogeography, paleobiogeography and the history of circulation in the Atlantic Ocean. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 20:126–186.Google Scholar
Berggren, W. A. and Hollister, C. D. 1977. Plate tectonics and paleocirculation—commotion in the ocean. Tectonophysics 38:11–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boltovskoy, E. 1965. Twilight of foraminiferology. J. Paleontol. 39:383–390.Google Scholar
Boltovskoy, E. and Boltovskoy, D. 1970. Foraminíferos planctónicos vivos del Mar de la Flota (Antártica). Rev. Espan. Micropaleontol. 2:27–44.Google Scholar
Bookstein, F. L., Gingerich, P. D., and Kluge, A. G. 1978. Hierarchical linear modeling of the tempo and mode of evolution. Paleobiology. 4:120–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bramlette, M. N. 1965. Massive extinctions in biota at the end of Mesozoic time. Science. 148:1696–1699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brasier, M. D. 1979. The Cambrian radiation event. pp. 103–159. In: House, M. R., ed. The Origin of Major Invertebrate Groups. Academic Press; London and New York.Google Scholar
Brasier, M. D. 1980. Microfossils. 193 pp. George Allen & Unwin; London.Google Scholar
Buchardt, B. and Hansen, H. J. 1977. Oxygen isotope fractionation and algal symbiosis in benthic foraminifera from the Gulf of Elat. Bull. Geol. Soc. Denmark. 26:185–194.Google Scholar
Bulman, O. M. B. 1959. Recent developments and trends in palaeontology. Adv. Sci. 16:33–42.Google Scholar
Carpenter, W. B., Parker, W. K., and Jones, T. R. 1862. Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera. 319 pp. Ray Soc. Publ.; London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, F. 1900. Foraminifera from the Tertiary of California. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., Geol. 1:241–258.Google Scholar
Cifelli, R. 1969. Radiation of Cenozoic planktonic foraminifera. Syst. Zool. 15:154–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Climap, . 1976. The surface of the ice-age earth. Science. 191:1131–1137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, F. J. 1926. The History of Protozoology. 64 pp. Univ. London Press; London.Google Scholar
Coney, P. J., Jones, D. L., and Monger, J. W. H. 1980. Cordilleran suspect terranes. Nature. 288:329–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, S. D., Green, H. W. II, and Lipps, J. H., 1977. Test ultrastructure of some calcareous foraminifera. J. Foram. Res. 7:278–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croneis, C. 1941. Micropaleontology—past and future. Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 25:1208–1255.Google Scholar
Cummings, R. H. 1960. Recent advances in micropaleontology. Liverpool and Manchester Geol. J. 2:288–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cushman, J. A. 1927. Foreword. J. Paleontol. 1:1.Google Scholar
Cushman, J. A. 1938. The future of paleontology. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 49:359–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. 1863. The doctrine of heterogeny and modification of species. Athenaeum. 1852:554–555.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. 1866. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 4th ed.593 pp. John Murray; London.Google Scholar
Douglas, R. G. 1979. Benthic foraminiferal ecology and paleoecology: A review of concepts and methods. pp. 21–53. In: Lipps, J. H. et al., Foraminiferal Ecology and Paleoecology. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Short Course 6; Houston, Texas.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, R. G. and Savin, S. M. 1978. Oxygen isotopic evidence for the depth stratification of Tertiary and Cretaceous planktic foraminifera. Mar. Micropaleontol. 3:175–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duguay, L. E. and Taylor, D. L. 1978. Primary production and calcification by the soritid foraminifer Archais angulatus (Fichtel & Moll). J. Protozool. 25:356–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dujardin, F. 1835a. Observations sur les Rhizopodes et les Infusoires. Comptes Rendus, Acad. Sci. Paris. 1:338–340.Google Scholar
Dujardin, F. 1835b. Observations nouvelles sur les prétendus Céphalopodes microscopiques. Am. Sci. Nat. Zool. Ser. 2. 3:312–314.Google Scholar
Edwards, W. N. 1967. The Early History of Palaeontology. 58 pp. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.); London.Google Scholar
Ehrenberg, C. G. 1839. Infusionthierchen als Vollkommene Organismen. 547 pp. Atlas, 64 pls. L. Voss; Leipzig.Google Scholar
Ehrenberg, C. G. 1854. Mikrogeologie. 374 pp. 40 pls. L. Voss; Leipzig.Google Scholar
Eldredge, N. and Gould, S. J. 1972. Punctuated equilibria: An alternative to phyletic gradualism. pp. 82–115. In: Schopf, T. J. M., ed. Models in Paleobiology. Freeman, Cooper and Co.; San Francisco.Google Scholar
Fischer, A. G. and Arthur, M. A. 1977. Secular variations in the pelagic realm. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 25:19–50.Google Scholar
Galloway, J. J. 1928. The change in ideas about foraminifera. J. Paleontol. 2:216–228.Google Scholar
Gartner, S. 1977. Nannofossils and biostratigraphy: An overview. Earth-Sci. Rev. 13:227–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gartner, S. and McGuirk, J. P. 1979. Terminal Cretaceous extinction: Scenario for a catastrophe. Science. 206:1272–1276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerry, E. 1976. Directory of Palaeontologists of the World. 3d ed.305 pp. Int. Palaeontol. Assoc.Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. 1969. The Triumph of the Darwinian Method. 287 pp. Univ. Calif. Press; Berkeley.Google Scholar
Goldstein, M. and Goldstein, I. F. 1979. How we Know: An Exploration of the Scientific Process. 357 pp. Plenum Press; New York.Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. 1980a. The promise of paleobiology as a nomothetic, evolutionary discipline. Paleobiology. 6:96–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J. 1980b. Is a new and general theory of evolution emerging? Paleobiology. 6:119–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J. and Eldredge, N. 1977. Punctuated equilibria: The tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered. Paleobiology. 3:115–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J. and Lewontin, R. C. 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme. Proc. R. Soc. London. B. 205:581–598.Google Scholar
Haeckel, E. 1887. Report on the Radiolaria collected by H. M. S. Challenger during the years 1873–76. Rep. Voyage Challenger, 1873–1876. Zool. 18 (1–2):1–1803.Google Scholar
Hallock, P. 1979. Trends in test shape with depth in large, symbiont-bearing foraminifera. J. Foram. Res. 9:61–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallock, P. and Hansen, H. J. 1978. Depth adaptation in Amphistegina: change in lamellar thickness. Bull. Geol. Soc. Denmark. 27:99–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanna, M. A. 1927. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. J. Paleontol. 1:3–9.Google Scholar
Hanson, E. D. 1977. The Origin and Early Evolution of Animals. 670 pp. Wesleyan Univ. Press; Middletown, Conn.Google Scholar
Haq, B. U. 1980. Marine micropaleontological update. Mar. Micropaleontol. 5:1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haq, B. U. and Boersma, A., eds. 1978. Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology. 376 pp. Elsevier; New York.Google Scholar
Hawkins, H. L. 1939. Humanity in geological perspective. Smithsonian Rep. 1939:253–264.Google Scholar
Heron-Allen, E. 1917. Alcide d'Orbigny, his life and work. R. Microsc. Soc. 1917:1–105.Google Scholar
Hickman, C. S. 1980. Gastropod radulae and the assessment of form in evolutionary paleontology. Paleobiology. 6:276–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hooke, R. 1667. Micrographia. 246 pp. R. Soc.; London (Facsimile reprint 1961, J. Cramer; Weinheim).Google Scholar
Howchin, W. 1891. The foraminifera of the older Tertiary (No. 2, Kent Town Bore, Adelaide). Trans. Proc. Rep. R. Soc. South Australia. 14:350.Google Scholar
Hsü, K. J. 1980. Terrestrial catastrophe caused by comentary impact at the end of Cretaceous. Nature. 285:201–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutner, S. H. and Corliss, J. O. 1976. Search for clues to the evolutionary meaning of ciliate phylogeny. J. Protozool. 23:48–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imbrie, J. J. and Kipp, N. G. 1971. A new micropaleontological method for quantitative paleoclimatology. Application to a late Pleistocene core. pp. 71–182. In: Turekian, E., ed. The Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages. Yale Univ. Press; New Haven.Google Scholar
Jahn, M. E. and Woolf, D. J. 1963. The lying stones of Dr. Johann Bartholomew Adam Beringer, being his Lithographiae Wirceburgensis. 221 pp. Univ. California Press; Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, T. R. 1884. Foraminifera and ostracoda from the deep boring at Richmond. Q. J. Geol. Soc. London. 40:765–777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karrer, F. 1877. Geologie der Kaiser Franz-Josefs Hochquellenwasserleitung, Eine Studie in den Tertiar-Bildungen am Westrande des alpinen Theiles der Niederung von Wien. Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Geol. Reichsanstalt. 9:1–420.Google Scholar
Kellogg, D. E. 1975. The role of phyletic change in the evolution of Pseudocubus vema (Radiolaria). Paleobiology. 1:359–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kellogg, D. E. 1980. Character displacement and phyletic change in the evolution of the radiolarian subfamily Artiscinae. Micropaleontology. 26:196–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kellogg, D. E. and Hays, J. D. 1975. Microevolutionary patterns in late Cenozoic Radiolaria. Paleobiology. 1:150–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennett, J. P. 1977. Cenozoic evolution of antarctic glaciation, the circumantarctic ocean, and their impact on global paleoceanography. J. Geophys. Res. 82:3843–3860.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennett, J. P. 1978. The development of planktonic biogeography in the southern ocean during the Cenozoic. Mar. Micropaleontol. 3:301–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, R. M. and Cronquist, A. 1967. A consideration of the evolutionary and taxonomic significance of some biochemical, micromorphological and some physiological characters in the thallophytes. Q. Rev. Biol. 42:105–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleinpell, R. M. 1971. California's early “oil bug” profession. J. of the West. 10:72–101.Google Scholar
Lawrence, D. R. 1968. Taphonomy and information losses in fossil communities. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 79:1315–1330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeCalvez, Y. 1974. Great names in micropaleontology. 1. Alcide d'Orbigny. pp. 261–264. In: Hedley, R. H. and Adams, C. G., eds. Foraminifera. Vol. 1. Academic Press; London.Google Scholar
Leonardon, E. G. 1961. Chapter 8. Logging, sampling and testing. pp. 493–578. In: Carter, D. V. et al., eds. History of Petroleum Engineering. Am. Petrol. Inst.; New York.Google Scholar
Levinton, J. S. and Simon, C. M. 1980. A critique of the punctuated equilibria model and implications for the detection of speciation in the fossil record. Syst. Zool. 29:130–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindström, M. 1973. On the affinities of conodonts. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 141:85–102.Google Scholar
Lipps, J. H. 1970a. Plankton evolution. Evolution. 24:1–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lipps, J. H. 1970b. Ecology and evolution of silicoflagellates. Proc. 1st North Am. Paleontol. Conv. G:965–993.Google Scholar
Lipps, J. H. 1973a. Microfossils. pp. 308–312. In: Gray, P., ed. Encyclopedia of Microscopy and Microtechnique. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.; New York.Google Scholar
Lipps, J. H. 1973b. Test structure in foraminifera. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 27:471–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lipps, J. H. 1979. Ecology and paleoecology of planktic foraminifera. pp. 62–104. In: Lipps, J. H. et al., Foraminiferal Ecology and Paleoecology. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Short Course 6; Houston, Texas.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipps, J. H. and Erskian, M. G. 1969. Plastogamy in foraminifera: Glabratella ornatissima (Cushman). J. Protozool. 16:422–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeblich, A. R. Jr. 1974. Protistan phylogeny as indicated by the fossil record. Taxon. 23:277–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loeblich, A. R. Jr. and Tappan, H. 1964a. Foraminiferal facts, fallacies and frontiers. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 75:367–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loeblich, A. R. Jr. and Tappan, H. 1964b. Sarcodina, chiefly “thecamoebians” and Foraminiferida. Part C. Protista 2. 2 vols. 900 pp. In: Moore, R. C., ed. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Geol. Soc. Am. and Univ. Kansas Press; Lawrence, Kansas.Google Scholar
Loeblich, A. R. III et al. 1968. Annotated index of fossil and Recent silicoflagellates and ebridians with descriptions and illustrations of validly proposed taxa. Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. 106:1–319.Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. H. 1972. Geographical Ecology: Patterns in the Distribution of Species. 269 pp. Harper & Row, Publ.; New York.Google Scholar
Margulis, L. 1970. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. 349 pp. Yale Univ. Press; New Haven.Google Scholar
Marszalek, D. S., Wright, R. C., and Hay, W. W. 1969. Function of the test in foraminifera. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 19:341–352.Google Scholar
Matthews, R. K. et al. 1980. Late Miocene palaeo-oceanography of the Atlantic: Oxygen isotope data on planktonic and benthic foraminifera. Nature. 283:555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menard, H. W. 1971. Science: Growth and Change. 215 pp. Harvard Univ. Press; Cambridge, Mass.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, T. C. and Echols, R. J. 1979. Micropaleontology. pp. 470–475. In: Fairbridge, R. W. and Jablonski, D., eds. The Encyclopedia of Paleontology. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc.; Stroudsburg, Penn.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, H. M., Boardman, W. W. Jr., and Koontz, R. F. 1971. Science and Creation: A Handbook for Teachers. 99 pp. Creation-Science Res. Center; San Diego, Calif.Google Scholar
Murray, J. W. 1973. Distribution and Ecology of Living Benthic Foraminiferids. 274 pp. Heinemann Educational Books; London.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. K. 1973. What is a kummerform planktonic foraminifer? J. Paleontol. 47:327–329.Google Scholar
Owen, E. W. 1975. Trek of the oil finders: a history of exploration for petroleum. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 6:1–1647.Google Scholar
Ozawa, T. 1975. Evolution of Lepidolina multiseptata (Permian foraminifer) in East Asia. Mem. Fac. Sci. Kyushu Univ., Ser. D, Geol. 23:117–164.Google Scholar
Platt, J. R. 1964. Strong inference. Science. 146:347–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pokorny, V. 1963. Principles of Zoological Micropalaeontology. Vol. 1. 652 pp. MacMillan Co.; New York.Google Scholar
De Solla Price, D. J. 1963. Little Science, Big Science. 119 pp. Columbia Univ. Press; New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prothero, D. R. and Lazarus, D. B. 1980. Planktonic microfossils and the recognition of ancestors. Syst. Zool. 29:119–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raup, D. M. 1966. Geometric analysis of shell coiling. J. Paleontol. 40:1178–1190.Google Scholar
Raup, D. M. 1972. Approaches to morphologic analysis. pp. 28–44. In: Schopf, T. J. M., ed. Models in Paleobiology. Freeman, Cooper & Co.; San Francisco, Calif.Google Scholar
Riedel, W. R. 1957. Radiolaria: A preliminary stratigraphy. Rep. Swedish Deep-Sea Exped. 1947–1948. 6:59–96.Google Scholar
Riedel, W. R. 1973. Cenozoic planktonic micropaleontology and biostratigraphy. Annu. Rev. Earth and Planet. Sci. 1:241–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riedel, W. R. and Sanfilippo, A. 1978. Stratigraphy and evolution of tropical Cenozoic radiolarians. Micropaleontology 24:61–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, C. A. 1967. Development of fusulinid (Foraminiferida) faunal realms. J. Paleontol. 41:1341–1354.Google Scholar
Ross, C. A. 1972a. Biology and ecology of Marginopora vertebralis (Foraminiferida), Great Barrier Reef. J. Protozool. 19:181–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, C. A. 1972b. Paleobiologies analysis of Fusulinacean (Foraminiferida) shell morphology. J. Paleontol. 46:719–728.Google Scholar
Rudwick, M. J. S. 1964. The inference of function from structure in fossils. Brit. J. Philos. Sci. 15:27–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudwick, M. J. S. 1972. The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology. 287 pp. MacDonald; London.Google Scholar
Russell, R. D. 1970. SEPM history, 1926–1946. J. Paleontol. 44:173–194.Google Scholar
Sancetta, C. 1978. Neogene Pacific microfossils and paleoceanography. Mar. Micropaleontol. 3:347–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandon, H. 1957. Neglected animals—the Foraminifera. New Biol. 24:7–32.Google Scholar
Savin, S. M. 1977. The history of the earth's surface temperature during the past 100 million years. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 5:319–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlanger, S. O. and Jenkyns, H. C. 1976. Cretaceous anoxic events: causes and consequences. Geol. en Mijnbouw. 55:179–184.Google Scholar
Schnikter, D. 1974. Western Atlantic abyssal circulation during the past 12,000 years. Nature. 248:385–387.Google Scholar
Schopf, J. W. 1975. Precambrian paleobiology: Problems and perspectives. Annu. Rev. Earth and Planet. Sci. 3:213–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schopf, J. W. and Oehler, D. Z. 1976. How old are the eukaryotes? Science. 193:47–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schopf, J. W. et al. 1973. On the development of metaphytes and metazoans. J. Paleontol. 47:1–9.Google Scholar
Schopf, T. J. M. 1972. About this book. pp. 3–6. In: Schopf, T. J. M., ed. Models in Paleobiology. Freeman, Cooper & Co.; San Francisco, Calif.Google Scholar
Schuchert, C. 1924. The value of micro-fossils in petroleum exploration. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 5:539–553.Google Scholar
Scott, G. H. 1974. Biometry of the foraminiferal shell. pp. 55–151. In: Hedley, R. H. and Adams, C. G., eds. Foraminifera. Vol. 1. Academic Press; London.Google Scholar
Scott, G. H. 1976. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy and evolutionary models. Syst. Zool. 25:78–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seilacher, A. 1970. Arbeitskonzept zur Konstruktions-Morphologie. Lethaia. 5:393–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, G. G. 1978. Concession to the Improbable: An Unconventional Autobiography. 291 pp. Yale Univ. Press; New Haven.Google Scholar
Sleigh, M. A. 1979. Radiation of the eukaryote Protista. pp. 23–53. In: House, M. R., ed. The Origin of Major Invertebrate Groups. Academic Press; London.Google Scholar
Sliter, W. V. 1968. Shell material variation in the agglutinated foraminifer Trochammina pacifica Cushman. Tulane Stud. Geol. 6:80–84.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1979. Macroevolution: Pattern and Process. 332 pp. W. H. Freeman and Co.; San Francisco.Google Scholar
Steinker, D. C. 1973. Test dimorphism in Glabratella ornatissima (Cushman). Compass. 50:10–21.Google Scholar
Stephenson, L. W. 1914. A deep well at Charleston, South Carolina. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 90:69–90.Google Scholar
Tagliacozzo, R. 1977. Self-citations in scientific literature. J. Documentation. 33:251–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tappan, H. 1968. Primary production, isotopes, extinctions and the atmosphere. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 4:187–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tappan, H. 1979. Protista. pp. 652–660. In: Fairbridge, R. W. and Jablonski, D., eds. The Encyclopedia of Paleontology. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc.; Stroudsburg, Penn.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tappan, H. and Loeblich, A. R. Jr. 1973. Evolution of the oceanic plankton. Earth-Sci. Rev. 9:207–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, F. J. R. 1976. Flagellate phylogeny: A study in conflicts. J. Protozool. 23:28–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Udden, J. A. 1914. Some deep borings in Illinois. Ill. State Geol. Surv. Bull. 24:1–141.Google Scholar
Valentine, J. W. 1973. Evolutionary Paleoecology of the Marine Biosphere. 511 pp. Prentice-Hall, Inc.; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Valentine, J. W. 1975. Presidential address: Method and style in paleontology. J. Paleontol. 49:439–444.Google Scholar
Vrba, E. S. 1980. Evolution, species and fossils: How does life evolve? South Afr. J. Sci. 76:61–84.Google Scholar
Walker, R. D. 1977. Database review: GEOREF (plus other geoscience databases). Online. 1:74–78.Google Scholar
Wallace, A. R. 1889. Darwinism. 2nd ed.494 pp. Macmillian and Co.; London.Google Scholar
Westermann, G. E. G. 1968. Directory of Palaeontologists of the World (excl. Soviet Union & Continental China). 250 pp. Int. Palaeontol. Union and McMaster Univ.; Hamilton, Canada.Google Scholar
White, A. D. 1898. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. Vol. 1, 415 pp. Vol. 2, 474 pp. D. Appleton and Co.; New York.Google Scholar
Whittaker, R. H. 1969. New concepts of kingdoms of organisms. Science. 163:150–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williamson, W. C. 1858. On the Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain. 107 pp. The Ray Soc.; London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, A. E. 1957. What, if anything, is a rabbit? Evolution 11:417–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worsley, T. R. 1971. The terminal Cretaceous event. Nature. 230:318–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar