Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T21:23:00.528Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The scale of it all: postcanine tooth size, the taxon-level effect, and the universality of Gould's scaling law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2016

Lynn E. Copes  and
Gary T. Schwartz
Lynn E. Copes
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287. E-mail: [email protected]
Gary T. Schwartz
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In a seminal paper in 1975, Gould proposed that postcanine occlusal area (PCOA) should scale metabolically (0.75) with body mass across mammals. By regressing PCOA against skull length in a small sample of large-bodied herbivorous mammals, Gould provided some marginal support for this hypothesis, which he then extrapolated as a universal scaling law for Mammalia. Since then, many studies have sought to confirm this scaling relationship within a single order and have found equivocal support for Gould's assertion. In part, this may be related to the use of proxies for both PCOA and body mass, small sample sizes, or the influence of a “taxon-level effect,” rendering Gould's scaling “universal” problematic.

Our goal was to test the universality of Gould's prediction and the impact of the taxon-level effect on regressions of tooth size on body mass in a large extant mammalian sample (683 species spanning 14 orders). We tested for the presence of two types of taxon-level effect that may influence the acceptance or rejection of hypothesized scaling coefficients. The hypotheses of both metabolic and isometric scaling can be rejected in Mammalia, but not in all sub-groups therein. The level of data aggregation also influences the interpretation of the scaling relationship. Because the scaling relationship of tooth size to body mass is highly dependent on both the taxonomic level of analysis and the mathematical methods used to organize the data, paleontologists attempting to retrodict body mass from fossilized dental remains must be aware of the effect that sample composition may have on their results.

Type
Articles
Information
Paleobiology , Volume 36 , Issue 2 , Spring 2010 , pp. 188 - 203
Copyright
Copyright © The Paleontological Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Literature Cited

Agrawal, A. A. 2004. The metabolic theory of ecology. Ecology 85:1790–1791.Google Scholar
Aiello, L., and Wood, B. 1994. Cranial variables as predictors of hominine body mass. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 95:409–426.Google Scholar
Allen, A., Brown, J., and Gillooly, J. 2002. Global biodiversity, biochemical kinetics, and the energetic-equivalence rule. Science 297:1545–1548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anapol, F., and Lee, S. 1994. Morphological adaptation to diet in platyrrhine primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 94:239–261.Google Scholar
Anapol, F., Turner, T., Mott, C., and Jolly, C. 2005. Comparative postcranial body shape and locomotion in Chlorocebus aethiops and Cercopithecus mitis . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 127:231–239.Google Scholar
Anderson, J., Rahn, H., and Prange, H. 1979. Scaling of supportive tissue mass. Quarterly Review of Biology 54:139–148.Google Scholar
Biewener, A. 2005. Biomechanical consequences of scaling. Journal of Experimental Biology 208:1665–1676.Google Scholar
Biknevicius, A., and Ruff, C. 1992. Structure of the mandibular corpus and its relationship to feeding behaviors in extant carnivorans. Journal of Zoology 228:478–507.Google Scholar
Blondel, J. 1987. From biogeography to life history theory: a multithematic approach illustrated by the biogeography of vertebrates. Journal of Biogeography 14:405–422.Google Scholar
Boekschoten, G., and Sondaar, P. 1972. The Pleistocene of the Katharo Basin (Crete) and its hippopotamus. Bijdragen tot de Diekunde 36:17–44.Google Scholar
Brown, J., and Nicoletto, P. 1991. Spatial scaling of species composition: body masses of North American land mammals. American Naturalist 138:1478–1512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, J., Marquet, P., and Taper, M. 1993. Evolution of body size: consequences of an energetic definition of fitness. American Naturalist 142:573–584.Google Scholar
Brown, J., Gillooly, J., Allen, A., Savage, V., and West, G. 2004. Toward a metabolic theory of ecology. Ecology 85:1771–1789.Google Scholar
Brown, P., Sutikna, T., Morwood, M., Soejono, R., Jatmiko, E. Saptomo, and Due, R. 2004. A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia. Nature 431:1055–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheverud, J., Dow, M. M., and Leutenegger, W. 1985. The quantitative assessment of phylogenetic constraints in comparative analyses: sexual dimorphism in body weight among primates. Evolution 396:1335–1351.Google Scholar
Churchfield, S. 1996. Ecology of very small terrestrial mammals. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 69:259–276.Google Scholar
Conroy, G. C. 1987. Problems of body-weight estimation in fossil primates. International Journal of Primatology 82:115–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corruccini, R., and Henderson, A. 1978. Multivariate dental allometry in primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 48:205–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cottingham, K., and Zens, M. 2004. Metabolic rate opens a grand vista on ecology. Ecology 85:1805–1807.Google Scholar
Creighton, G. 1980. Static allometry of mammalian teeth and the correlation of tooth size and body size in contemporary mammals. Journal of Zoology London 191:435–443.Google Scholar
Cuozzo, F. P. 2001. Craniodental body mass estimators in the dwarf bushbaby (Galagoides). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1152:187–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damuth, J. D. 1990. Problems in estimating body masses of archaic ungulates using dental measurements. Pp. 229–254 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Damuth, J. D., and MacFadden, B. J., eds. 1990. Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Dayan, T., Wool, D., and Simberloff, D. 2002. Variation and covariation of skulls and teeth: modern carnivores and the interpretation of fossil mammals. Paleobiology 28:508–526.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, J. F. 1990. The behavioral/ecological significance of body size in the Mammalia. Pp. 25–38 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Enquist, B., Economo, E., Huxman, T., Allen, A., Ignace, D., and Gillooly, J. 2003. Scaling metabolism from organisms to ecosystems. Nature 423:639–642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fa, J. E., and Purvis, A. 1997. Body size, diet and population density in Afrotropical forest mammals: a comparison with neotropical species. Journal of Animal Ecology 66:98–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, H. A., and McMahon, T. 1983. The 3/4 mass exponent for energy metabolism is not a statistical artifact. Respiration Physiology 52:149–163.Google Scholar
Felsenstein, J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. American Naturalist 125:1–15.Google Scholar
Fleagle, J. G. 1985. Size and adaptation in primates. Pp. 1–19 in Jungers, W. L., ed. Size and scaling in primate biology. Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Fooden, J. 1990. The bear macaque, Macaca arctoides: a systematic review. Journal of Human Evolution 19:607–686.Google Scholar
Fortelius, M. 1985. Ungulate cheek teeth: developmental, functional, and evolutionary interrelations. Acta Zoologica Fennica 190:1–76.Google Scholar
Fortelius, M. 1990. Problems with using fossil teeth to estimate body sizes of extinct mammals. Pp. 207–228 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Garland, T. 1992. Rate tests for phenotypic evolution using phylogenetically independent contrasts. American Naturalist 140:509–519.Google Scholar
Garland, T., Midford, P., and Ives, A. 1999. An introduction to phylogenetically based statistical methods, with a new method for confidence intervals on ancestral values. American Zoologist 39:374–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garland, T., and Ives, A. 2000. Using the past to predict the present: confidence intervals for regression equations in phylogenetic comparative methods. American Naturalist 155:346–364.Google Scholar
Garland, T., Bennett, A., and Rezende, E. L. 2005. Phylogenetic approaches in comparative physiology. Journal of Experimental Biology 2086:3015–3035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garn, S., Lewis, A., and Kerewsky, R. 1968. The magnitude and implications of the relationship between tooth size and body size. Archives of Oral Biology 13:128–131.Google Scholar
Gingerich, P. 1974. Size variability of the teeth in living mammals and the diagnosis of closely related sympatric fossil species. Journal of Paleontology 48:895–903.Google Scholar
Gingerich, P. 1977. Correlation of tooth size and body size in living hominoid primates, with a note on relative brain size in Aegyptopithecus and Proconsul . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 47:395–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gingerich, P. D., and Smith, B. H. 1985. Allometric scaling in the dentition of primates and insectivores. Pp. 257–272 in Jungers, W. L., ed. Size and scaling in primate biology. Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Gingerich, P., Smith, B. H., and Rosenberg, K. 1982. Allometric scaling in the dentition of primates and prediction of body weight from tooth size in fossils. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 58:81–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, S., Post, D., and Melnick, D. 1978. An analysis of cercopithcoid odontometrics. 1. The scaling of the maxillary dentition. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 49:517–532.Google Scholar
Gould, S. 1975. On the scaling of tooth size in mammals. American Zoologist 15:351–362.Google Scholar
Grand, T. I. 1990. The functional anatomy of body mass. Pp. 39–48 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Harestad, A., and Bunnel, F. 1979. Home range and body weight—a reevaluation. Ecology 60:389–402.Google Scholar
Harvey, P. H., Pagel, M., and Rees, J. 1991. Mammalian metabolism and life histories. American Naturalist 137:556–566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, I. 1996. The genetics and physiology of size reduction in mice. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 69:129–142.Google Scholar
Henderson, A., and Corruccini, R. 1976. Relationship between tooth size and body size in American blacks. Journal of Dental Research 55:94–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herring, S. 1985. Morphological correlates of masticatory patterns in peccaries and pigs. Journal of Mammalogy 66:603–617.Google Scholar
Hershkovitz, P. 1970. Notes on Tertiary platyrrhine monkeys and description of a new genus from the Late Miocene of Colombia. Folia Primatologica 12:1–37.Google Scholar
Heusner, A. 1982. Energy metabolism and body size. 1. Is the 0.75 mass exponent of Kleiber's equation a statistical artifact? Respiratory Physiology 48:1–12.Google Scholar
Hill, A. 1950. The dimensions of animals and their muscular dynamics. Science Progress 38:209–230.Google Scholar
Iwaniuk, A., Pellis, S., and Whishaw, I. 2000. The relative importance of body size, phylogeny, locomotion, and diet in the evolution of forelimb dexterity in fissiped carnivores (Carnivora). Canadian Journal of Zoology 78:1110–1125.Google Scholar
Janis, C. 1979. Mastication in the hyrax and its relevance to ungulate dental evolution. Paleobiology 5:50–59.Google Scholar
Janis, C. 1986. An estimation of tooth volume and hypsodonty indices in ungulate mammals, and the correlation of these factors with dietary preferences. Mémoires du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris 53:367–387.Google Scholar
Janis, C. 1990a. Correlation of cranial and dental variables with body size in ungulates and macropodoids. Pp. 255–300 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Janis, C. 1990b. Correlation of cranial and dental variables with dietary preferences in mammals: a comparison of macropodoids and ungulates. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 28:249–266.Google Scholar
Johanson, D. 1974. Some metric aspects of the permanent and deciduous dentition of the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus) . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 41:39–48.Google Scholar
Kanazawa, E., and Rosenberger, A. 1989. Interspecific allometry of the mandible, dental arch, and molar area in anthropoid primates: functional morphology of masticatory components. Primates 30:543–560.Google Scholar
Kappeler, P. 1996. Causes and consequences of life-history variation among strepsirhine primates. American Naturalist 148:868–891.Google Scholar
Kaspari, M. 2004. Using the metabolic theory of ecology to predict global patterns of abundance. Ecology 85:1800–1802.Google Scholar
Kay, R. 1975. Reply to “Allometry and early hominids.” Science 189:63.Google Scholar
Kay, R. 1994. “Giant” tamarin from the Miocene of Colombia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 95:333–353.Google Scholar
Kieser, J. A. 1990. Allometric relations of tooth size. Pp. 112–125 in Human adult odontometrics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kieser, J., and Groeneveld, H. 1990. Static intraspecific allometry of the dentition in Otolemur crassicaudatus . Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 98:295–306.Google Scholar
Kieser, J., and Groeneveld, H. 1991. Craniodental allometry in the African wild cat, Felis lybica . Journal of Mammalogy 72:578–582.Google Scholar
Kleiber, M. 1932. Body size and metabolism. Hilgardia 61:315–353.Google Scholar
Kleiber, M. 1947. Body size and metabolic rate. Physiology Reviews 27:511–541.Google Scholar
Koehl, M. A. R., and Wolcott, B. 2004. Can function at the organismal level explain ecological patterns? Ecology 85:1808–1810.Google Scholar
Kozlowski, J., and Konarzewski, M. 2004. Is West, Brown and Enquist's model of allometric scaling mathematically correct and biologically relevant? Functional Ecology 18:283–289.Google Scholar
Legendre, S., and Roth, C. 1988. Correlation of carnassial tooth size and body weight in recent carnivores (Mammalia). Historical Biology 1:85–98.Google Scholar
Leigh, S., Shah, N., and Buchanan, L. 2003. Ontogeny and phylogeny in papionin primates. Journal of Human Evolution 45:285–316.Google Scholar
Leutenegger, W. 1982. Scaling of sexual dimorphism in body weight and canine size in primates. Folia Primatologica 37:163–176.Google Scholar
Marquet, P., Labra, F., and Maurer, B. 2004. Metabolic ecology: linking individuals to ecosystems. Ecology 85:1794–1796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsumoto, H. 1926. Contribution to the knowledge of the fossil Hyracoidea of the Fayûm, Egypt, with description of several new species. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 61:253–350.Google Scholar
McHenry, H. 1984. Relative cheek-tooth size in Australopithecus . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 64:297–306.Google Scholar
McHenry, H., and Berger, L. 1998. Body proportions of Australopithecus afarensis and A. africanus and the origin of the genus Homo . Journal of Human Evolution 35:1–22.Google Scholar
McMahon, T. 1973. Size and shape in biology. Science 179:1201–1204.Google Scholar
McNab, B. 1988. Complications inherent in scaling the basal rate of metabolism in mammals. Quarterly Review of Biology 63:25–54.Google Scholar
McNab, B. 1990. The physiological significance of body size. Pp. 11–24 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
McNab, B. 2003. Metabolism: ecology shapes bird bioenergetics. Nature 426:620–621.Google Scholar
Niven, J., and Scharlemann, J. 2005. Do insect metabolic rates at rest and during flight scale with body mass? Biology Letters 1:346–349.Google Scholar
Pagel, M., and Harvey, P. 1988. The taxon-level problem in the evolution of mammalian brain size: facts and artifacts. American Naturalist 132:344–359.Google Scholar
Pagel, M., and Harvey, P. 1989. Taxonomic differences in the scaling of brain on body weight among mammals. Science 244:1589–1593.Google Scholar
Palkovacs, E. 2003. Explaining adaptive shifts in body size on islands: a life history approach. Oikos 103:37–44.Google Scholar
Pan, R., and Oxnard, C. 2001. Metrical dental analysis on golden monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Primates 42:75–89.Google Scholar
Pan, R., Peng, Y., Ye, Z., and Yu, F. 1993. Sexual dimorphism of skull and dentition in Phayre's leaf monkey (Presbytis phayrei). Folia Primatologica 60:230–236.Google Scholar
Perzigian, A. 1981. Allometric analysis of dental variation in a human population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 54:341–345.Google Scholar
Pilbeam, D., and Gould, S. 1974. Size and scaling in human evolution. Science 186:892–901.Google Scholar
Pirie, C. 1978. Allometric scaling in the postcanine dentition with reference to primate diets. Primates 19:583–591.Google Scholar
Plavcan, J. M. 1990. Sexual dimorphism in the dentition of extant anthropoid primates. Ph.D. dissertation. Duke University, Durham, N.C. Google Scholar
Plavcan, J., and Gomez, A. 1990. Phyletic dwarfing and dental scaling in Callitrichines. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 81:282 [abstract].Google Scholar
Plavcan, J., and Gomez, A. 1993. Relative tooth size and dwarfing in callitrichines. Journal of Human Evolution 25:241–245.Google Scholar
Polly, P. 1998. Variability in mammalian dentitions: size-related bias in the coefficient of variation. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 64:83–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popowics, T. 2003. Postcanine dental form in the Mustelidae and Viverridae (Carnivora: Mammalia). Journal of Morphology 256:322–341.Google Scholar
Prange, H., Anderson, J., and Rahn, H. 1979. Scaling of skeletal mass to body mass in birds and mammals. American Naturalist 113:103–122.Google Scholar
Prothero, D., and Sereno, P. 1982. Allometry and paleoecology of medial Miocene dwarf rhinoceroses from the Texas Gulf Coast Plain. Paleobiology 8:16–30.Google Scholar
Rosenberger, A. L. 1979. Phylogeny, evolution and classification of New World monkeys (Platyrrhini, Primates). Ph.D. dissertation. City University of New York, New York.Google Scholar
Rosenberger, A. L. 1992. Evolution of feeding niches in New World monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 88:525–562.Google Scholar
Rosenberger, A., and Strier, K. 1989. Adaptive radiation of the ateline primates. Journal of Human Evolution 18:717–750.Google Scholar
Ross, C. 1992. Basal metabolic rate, body weight and diet in primates: an evaluation of the evidence. Folia Primatologica 58:7–23.Google Scholar
Roth, V. L. 1990. Insular dwarf elephants: a case study in body mass estimation and ecological significance. Pp. 151–180 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Rubin, C., and Lanyon, L. 1984. Dynamic strain similarity in vertebrates; an alternative to allometric limb bone scaling. Journal of Theoretical Biology 107:321–327.Google Scholar
Sacher, G. A. 1959. Relation of lifespan to brain weight and body weight in mammals. Pp. 115–141 in Wolstenholme, G. E. W., ed. Ciba Foundation Colloquium on Aging, Vol. 1.Google Scholar
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1970. Energy metabolism, body size, and problems of scaling. Federation Proceedings 29:1524–1532.Google Scholar
Schuman, E. 1954. Metric and morphologic variations in the dentition of the Liberian chimpanzee: comparisons with anthropoid and human dentitions. Human Biology 26:239–268.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. T., Rasmussen, D. T., and Smith, R. J. 1995. Body-size diversity and community structure of fossil hyracoids. Journal of Mammalogy 76:1088–1099.Google Scholar
Scott, K. M. 1990. Postcranial dimensions of ungulates as predictors of body mass. Pp. 301–336 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Shea, B., and Gomez, A. 1988. Tooth scaling and evolutionary dwarfism: an investigation of allometry in human pygmies. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 77:117–132.Google Scholar
Silva, M., and Downing, J. A. 1995. CRC handbook of mammalian body masses. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. Google Scholar
Smith, R. J. 1981. On the definition of variables in studies of primate dental allometry. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 55:323–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, R. J. 1983. The mandibular corpus of female primates: taxonomic, dietary, and allometric correlates of interspecific variations in size and shape. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 61:315–330.Google Scholar
Smith, R. J. 1993. Categories of allometry: body size versus biomechanics. Journal of Human Evolution 24:173–182.Google Scholar
Smith, R. J. 1996. Biology and body size in human evolution: statistical inference misapplied. Current Anthropology 37:451–481.Google Scholar
Smith, R. J. 2009. Use and misuse of the reduced major axis for line-fitting. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 140:476–486.Google Scholar
Smith, R. J., and Cheverud, J. 2002. Scaling of sexual dimorphism in body mass: a phylogenetic analysis of Rensch's Rule in Primates. International Journal of Primatology 23:1095–1135.Google Scholar
Speakman, J. 1996. Energetics and the evolution of body size in small terrestrial mammals. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 69:63–81.Google Scholar
Speakman, J., Selman, C., McLaren, J., and Harper, E. 2002. Living fast, dying when? The link between aging and energetics. Journal of Nutrition 132:1583–1597.Google Scholar
Stahl, W. 1967. Scaling of respiratory variables in mammals. Journal of Applied Physiology 22:453–460.Google Scholar
Strait, S. 1993. Differences in occlusal morphology and molar size in frugivores and faunivores. Journal of Human Evolution 25:471–484.Google Scholar
Swindler, D. R. 2002. Primate Dentition: an introduction to the teeth of non-human primates. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Swindler, D. R., and Sirianni, J. 1975. Tooth and body size correlations in Macaca nemestrina . Journal of Dental Research 54:695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, C., Caldwell, S., and Rowntree, V. 1972. Running up and down hills: some consequences of size. Science 178:1096–1097.Google Scholar
Taylor, C. R., Schmidt-Nielsen, K., and Raab, J. 1970. Scaling of energetic cost of running to body size in mammals. American Journal of Physiology 219:1104–1107.Google Scholar
Taylor, C., Heglund, N., and Maloiy, G. 1982. Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. I. Metabolic energy consumption as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals. Journal of Experimental Biology 97:1–21.Google Scholar
Thorington, R., and Heaney, L. 1981. Body proportions and gliding adaptations of flying squirrels (Petauristinae). Journal of Mammalogy 62:101–113.Google Scholar
Tilman, D., Hillerislambers, J., Harpole, S., Dybzinski, R., Fargione, J., Clark, C., and Lehman, C. 2004. Does metabolic theory apply to community ecology? It's a matter of scale. Ecology 85:1797–1799.Google Scholar
Tornow, M., Ford, S., Garber, P., and de la Sauerbrunn, E. 2006. Dentition of moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax mystax) from Padre Isla, Peru, Part 1. Quantitative variation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 130:352–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Umminger, B. 1975. Body size and whole blood sugar concentrations in mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 50A:455–458.Google Scholar
van Valkenburgh, B. 1990. Skeletal and dental predictors of body mass in carnivores. Pp. 181–205 in Damuth, and MacFadden, 1990.Google Scholar
Vinyard, C. J., and Hanna, J. 2005. Molar scaling in strepsirrhine primates. Journal of Human Evolution 49:241–269.Google Scholar
Wang, D.-H., Pei, Y.-X., Yang, J.-C., and Wang, Z.-W. 2003. Digestive tract morphology and food habits in six species of rodents. Folia Zoologica 52:51–55.Google Scholar
Warton, D., Wright, I., Falster, D., and Westoby, M. 2006. Bivariate line-fitting methods for allometry. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 81:259–291.Google Scholar
Webster, A., Gittleman, J., and Purvis, A. 2004. The life history legacy of evolutionary body size change in carnivores. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 17:296–407.Google Scholar
Weiss, E. 2006. Osteoarthritis and body mass. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:690–695.Google Scholar
West, G., Brown, J., and Enquist, B. 1997. A general model for the origin of allometric scaling laws in biology. Science 276:122–126.Google Scholar
West, G., Brown, J., and Enquist, B. 1999. The fourth dimension of life: fractal geometry and allometric scaling of organisms. Science 284:1677–1679.Google Scholar
West, G., Woodruff, W., and Brown, J. 2002. Allometric scaling of metabolic rate from molecules and mitochondria to cells and mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99:2473–2478.Google Scholar
West, G., Savage, V., Gillooly, J., Enquist, B., Woodruff, W., and Brown, J. 2003. Physiology: why does metabolic rate scale with body size? Nature 421:713–714.Google Scholar
Wood, B. 1979. An analysis of tooth and body size relationships in five primate taxa. Folia Primatologica 31:187–211.Google Scholar
Yamashita, N. 1998. Molar morphology and variation in two Malagasy lemur families (Lemuridae and Indriidae). Journal of Human Evolution 35:137–162.Google Scholar
Zingeser, M. 1967. Odontometric characters of the howler monkey (Alouatta caraya). Journal of Dental Research 46:975–978.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Copes and Schwartz supplementary material

Appendices

Download Copes and Schwartz supplementary material(File)
File 90.1 KB