Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-4rdrl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-07T14:39:32.811Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Birdwoman and the Puppet King: a Study of Inversion in Chinese Theatre

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 January 2009

Abstract

Poh Sim Plowright recently spent six weeks in Quanzhou, in the Fujian Province of China, watching the puppeteers, actors, and audiences of her native Fujian theatre tradition. Here she was able to observe at first hand the principle of inversion that, she believes, underlies all Chinese theatre: and in the following article she argues that this principle is clearly illustrated by the string puppet and human theatres of Quanzhou, whose origins can be traced to the official ‘Pear Garden Theatre’ set up in the eighth century by the Tang Emperor, Ming Huang. Theatre in this part of South China is, Plowright suggests, living testimony to the continuing basis of Chinese theatre in the practice of ancestor worship, through which most performances become sacrificial offerings – a connection she believes Brecht to have missed in his celebrated confrontation with Chinese acting techniques in Moscow in 1935. Poh Sim Plowright is Lecturer in Oriental Drama and Director of the Noh Centre in the Department of Drama, Theatre, and Media Arts at Royal Holloway, University of London. She is the author of a book on the Noh, and also of several plays and features on theatrical subjects for BBC Radio Three.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes and References

1. Women's bound feet were called jin lian or ‘golden lotus’. By the end of the nineteenth century, there were around 100 million women in China whose feet had been bound. See Christina Madden, ‘The Art of Confinement’, The Independent, 24 April 1996, p. 44.

2. Silva, Anil de, Chinese Landscape Painting in the Caves of Dun Huang (London: Methuen, 1964 ), p. 86.Google Scholar

3. Granet, Marcel, The Religion of the Chinese People, trans. Freedman, Maurice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 47.Google Scholar

4. See the section on ‘Valkyries’, the supernatural warrior women cum swan maidens who lived with Odin (the principal god of the Teutonic peoples) in Valhalla, in New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology (Twickenham: Hamlyn Publishing, 1959), p. 255–79.

5. In Egypt it is believed that the first deity took the form of a bird which arose from the dark, watery abyss called the ‘Nun’. See Willis, Roy, ed., ‘The First Gods’, World Mythology (London: Simon and Schuster, 1993), p. 38.Google Scholar

6. Halifax, Joan, Shaman (London: Thames and Hudson), p. 23.Google Scholar

7. The ideograph for ‘male’ includes the radical for ‘field’.

8. Granet, op. cit., p. 54–5.

9. Although there are male and female shamans, the latter are regarded with special reverence. This is because the eagle, believed to have been the first shaman, transmitted its essence to a woman sleeping beneath a tree. She became pregnant and gave birth to a baby son, the first shaman. See Halifax, op. cit., p. 23.

10. The ideograph for ‘surname’ contains the radical for ‘woman’.

11. Lindqvist, Cecilia, China: Empire of the Written Symbol (London: Harvill, 1991), p. 43–4.Google Scholar

12. See Schipper, K. M., ‘The Divine Jester: Some Remarks on the Gods of the Chinese Marionette Theatre’, Journal Bulletin of Ethnology, 1966, p. 1.Google Scholar

13. The ‘birdwoman’ story in South-east Asia is taken from the ‘Jataka’ which is the technical name in Buddhist literature for a story about one of the previous lives of Buddha. See Yousof, Ghulam Sarwar, Dictionary of Traditional South-East Asian Theatre (Oxford; Singapore: Oxford University Press), p. 99100.Google Scholar

14. In all ‘birdwoman’ stories, east and west, it is while the birdwoman is bathing in a pool that her ‘plumage’ is stolen by a male. See New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, op. cit., p. 278.

15. Anil de Silva, op. cit., p. 132.

16. In Sheng, Hung, The Palace of Eternal Youth, trans. Hsien-yi, Yang and Yang, Gladys (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1955), p. 13,Google Scholar Yang Kuei Fei and Emperor Ming Huang were referred to as the ‘phoenix couple’. On the seventh day of the seventh month, on which is celebrated the yearly meeting between the ‘Weaving Maiden’ and the ‘Cowherd’ through the mediation of birds, the royal pair vowed that in Heaven they would be ‘as birds embraced that fly on one another's wings’. See Chui, Po I, ‘The Song of Everlasting Sorrow’, in Ayling, Alan and Mackintosh, Duncan, A Further Collection of Chinese Lyrics (London: Routledge, 1969 ), p. 233.Google Scholar

17. See de Groot, J. J. M., The Religious System of China, Vol. VI (Leyden, 1910), p. 1194.Google Scholar From 409 to 377 BC, the ruler Muh wanted to expose such diseased persons to the sun in order to persuade Heaven to send rain in time of drought.

18. See van der Loon, Piet, The Classical Theatre and Art Song of South Fukien (Taipei: SMC Publishing, 1992), p. 35.Google Scholar

19. Dolby, William, A History of Chinese Drama (London: Paul Elek, 1976), p. 10.Google Scholar

20. See Douglas, Mary, ‘The Social Control of Cognition: Some Factors in Joke Perception’, Man, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, III, No. 3 (1968), p. 374.Google Scholar

21. See Hung, Josephine Huang, “Introduction’, Classical Chinese Plays (Taiwan: Vision Press, 1972), p. 3.Google Scholar

22. Stalberg, Roberta Helmer, China's Puppets (San Francisco, 1984), p. 6970.Google Scholar

23. This is translated in Dolby, op. cit., p. 10.

24. Ching, Hsu Tao, The Chinese Conception of Theatre (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985) p. 152.Google Scholar

25. van der Loon, Piet, ‘Les Origines rituelles du théâtre chinois’, Journal Asiatic, CCLXV, p. 147.Google Scholar

26. Hsieh Yong Chien, one of the teachers in the Pear Garden Theatre in Quanzhou, teaches stage movements to both actors and puppeteers. In the Lingao county theatrical performers play the same roles on stage as the puppets they manipulate. See ‘Chinese Puppetry’, China Today, XV, No. 6 (Beijing: China Welfare Institute, June 1996), p. 69.Google Scholar

27. This is a close translation from Chiu, Wu Jie, Liyuan yu li-yuan hsi hsi-lun [The Origin of the Pear Garden: an Examination of the Pear Garden Theatre] (Fuzhou: Fujian Theatrical Research Institute, 1985), p. 63.Google Scholar

28. The Imperial exams began in the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) and were only abolished in 1905. See Creel, H. G., Chinese Thought (New York: New American Library of World Literature, 1953), p. 168.Google Scholar

29. See K.M. Schipper, op. cit., p. 92.

30. Ibid., p. 81.

31. Ibid., p. 85–6.

32. Ibid. See Plate 2, entitled ‘The Sending Off of the Spirit Boat: the Jesting Priest’ (Tainan, 12 October 1964, at night).

33. For example, hand patterns known as ‘Kuan Yin’ (Goddess of Mercy) hand, Buddha hand, Mother Chiang' or ‘root ginger’ hand were based on those of religious figures painted on the walls of the Dun Huang Caves founded in AD 433 by the monk Lo Tsun.

34. See Piet van der Loon, op. cit., p. 24.

35. This is taken from Ch'in yun hsieh ying hsiao-pu, p. 56. See Mackerras's, Colin translation in his The Rise of the Peking Opera(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 83.Google Scholar

36. Dolby, op. cit., p. 82.

37. Howard, Roger, Contemporary Chinese Theatre (London 1978), p. 29.Google Scholar

38. Zucker, A. E., The Chinese Theatre (Boston: Little, Brown, 1925), p. 187.Google Scholar

39. Tynan, Kenneth, Curtains (London, 1961), p. 389.Google Scholar

40. This teaching was ascribed to the distinguished nineteenth-century actor Chi Yu Liang. See Chinese Literature, No. 9 (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1969), p. 82.Google Scholar

41. Brecht, Bertolt, ‘Alienation Effects in Chinese Acting’, in Brecht on Theatre, ed. and trans. Willett, John (London: Methuen, 1964), p. 92.Google Scholar

42. See Jun, Uchiyama, ‘Doctrine: China, Theatre after 1949’, The Drama Review, XV, No. 3 (Spring 1971), p. 253.Google Scholar