The discrepancy between the historical evidence for Domitian's reign and the persecuting ‘beasts’ from the land and sea in the Revelation of John discourages the identification of the latter with the Roman government. For the author of Revelation, they are meant to represent political messianism in Palestinian and diaspora Judaism. The conflict between political messianism and Christian messianism is best illustrated by the contrast between the Messiah who emerges from the sea in 4 Ezra 13 and the ‘beast’ from the sea in Rev 13.1.