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II. Gods

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2016

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Extract

Gods have not been at the very centre of modern discussions of Greek religion. Yet there are several questions worth asking. What did the Greeks see as important differences between themselves and the gods, and between gods and heroes? Which factors helped to define the identity of individual gods (§ 1)? How do we study the pantheon (§ 2)? What did the Greeks consider to be the sphere of influence of individual gods? What was the nature of the divine hierarchy? Last but not least, were the gods persons or powers (§ 3)?

Type
Research Article
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New Surveys in the Classics , Volume 24: Greek Religion with addenda , 1999 , pp. 11 - 26
Copyright
Copyright © The Classical Association 1999

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References

Notes

1. But see Sissa, G. and Detienne, M., La vie quotidienne des dieux grecs (Paris, 1989)Google Scholar. A detailed historiographical survey: Henrichs, A., Die Götter Griechenlands. Ihr Bild im Wandel der Religionswissenschaft (Bamberg, 1987)Google Scholar = Flashar, H. (ed), Auseinandersetzungen mit der Antike (Bamberg, 1900), pp. 116-62Google Scholar.

2. Theos: Rix, H., Kratylos 14 (1969 [1972]), 179fGoogle Scholar. Daimon: De Jong, Narrators and Focalizers, pp. 158, 239f.

3. Cf. van Wees, H., Status Warriors (Amsterdam, 1992), pp. 142-9Google Scholar; differently, Lloyd-Jones, H., The Justice of Zeus (Berkeley, 1983 2)Google Scholar; Kullmann, W., Homerische Motive (Stuttgart, 1992)Google Scholar.

4. Tragedy: Mikalson, J. D., Honor Thy Gods (Chapel Hill, 1991), pp. 17–68 Google Scholar, a valuable study despite its weak theoretical basis, cf. Yunis, H., CR 43 (1993), 70-2Google Scholar. Comedy: this is insufficiently taken into account by Gould, ‘On making sense of Greek religion’.

5. Frivolity: Burkert, , ‘Götterspiel und Götterburleske in altorientalischen und griechischen Mythen’, Eranos-Jahrbuch 51 (1982), 336-67Google Scholar; Griffin, J., Homer on Life and Death (Oxford, 1980), pp. 144–204 Google Scholar (the gods’ serious side). Anthropomorphism: Vernant, J.-P., Mortals and Immortals, ed. Zeitlin, F. (Princeton, 1991), pp. 27–49 Google Scholar; Burkert, , ‘Homer’s Anthropomorphism: Narrative and Ritual’, in Buitron-Oliver, D. (ed), New Perspectives in Early Greek Art (Washington, 1991), pp. 81–91 Google Scholar.

6. Cf. Versnel, H. S., ‘What did Ancient Man See when He saw a God? Some Reflections on Greco-Roman Antiquity’, in van der Plas, D. (ed), Effigies Dei (Leiden, 1987), pp. 42–55 Google Scholar; Mussies, G., ‘Identification and Self-Identification of Gods in Classical and Hellenistic Greece’, in van den Broek, R. et al. (eds), Knowledge of God in the Graeco-Roman World (Leiden, 1988), pp. 1–18 Google Scholar; Gladigow, B., ‘Epiphanie, Statuette, Kultbild. Griechische Gottesvorstellungen im Wechsel von Kontext und Medium’, Visible Religion 7 (1990), 98–121 Google Scholar.

7. See also Buxton, R., Imaginary Greece. The Contexts of Mythology (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 146-9Google Scholar, on the poignant character of this boundary in the Iliad.

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11. Cf. Henrichs, A., ‘The Tomb of Aias and the Prospect of Hero Cult in Sophokles’, Class. Ant. 12 (1993), 165-80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Antonaccio, C., ‘The Archaeology of Ancestors’, in Dougherty, C. and Kurke, L. (eds), Cultural Poetics in Archaic Greece (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 46–69 Google Scholar; Whitley, J., ‘The Monuments That Stood before Marathon: Tomb Cult and Hero Cult in Archaic Attica’, Am. J. Arch. 98 (1994), 213-30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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13. Ar. fr. 322, translated and commented upon by Parker, Miasma, pp. 243f.

14. The best modern discussion is now Kearns, E., The Heroes of Attica (London, 1989)Google Scholar; see also Visser, M., ‘Worship your enemies: aspects of the cult of heroes in ancient Greece’, Harvard Theol. Rev. 75 (1982), 403-28Google Scholar.

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17. Bremmer, , Mnemosyne IV 42 (1989), 263 Google Scholar, commenting on Leto’s connection with initiation in Chios, cf. Graf, NK, 60f.

18. Poseidon: Bérard, C., ‘Iconographie-Iconologie-iconologique’, Etudes de Lettres (1983), 5–37, esp. 15–20Google Scholar. Athena: Bron, C., ‘La gent ailée d’Athéna Poliade’, in Bron, C. and Kassapoglou, E. (eds), L’Image enjeu de l’antiquité à Paul Klee (Lausanne, 1992), pp. 47–65 Google Scholar; H. Shapiro, ‘From Athena’s Owl to the Owl of Athens’, in Rosen/Farrell, Nomodeiktes, pp. 213–24. Zeus: Arafat, K. W., Classical Zeus (Oxford, 1990), p. 166 Google Scholar notes that Zeus’ thunderbolt is almost completely absent from the later fifth century onwards. Doves: Robert, L., Opera minora selecta 7 (1990), pp. 159-83Google Scholar.

19. Cf. van Straten, F. T., ‘Daikrates’ Dream’, Bull. Ant. Besch. 51 (1976, 1–38), 14–16 Google Scholar; Gladigow, B., ‘Präsenz der Bilder – Präsenz der Götter. Kultbilder und Bilder der Götter in der griechischen Religion’, Visible Religion 4-5 (1985-86), 114-33Google Scholar.

20. Good observations on the nature of the Greek gods also in Jost, M., Aspects de la vie religieuse en Grèce (Paris, 1992 2), pp. 1–34 Google Scholar.

21. Long, C. R., The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome (Leiden, 1987)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Angiolillo, S., ‘Hestia, l’edificio F e l’altare dei 12 Dei ad Atene’, Ostraka 1 (1992), 171-6Google Scholar; Gadberg, L. M., ‘The Sanctuary of the Twelve Gods in the Athenian Agora’, Hesperia 61 (1992), 447-89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nünlist, R., ZPE 99 (1993), 250 Google Scholar (to swear ‘by the twelve gods’ is still customary in contemporary Greece).

22. Cf. Burkert, GR, pp. 199–203; A. Henrichs, ‘Namenlosigkeit und Euphemismus: Zur Ambivalenz der chthonischen Mächte im attischen Drama’, in Hofmann/Harder, Fragmenta dramática, pp. 162f.

23. Cf. Schlesier, R., ‘Olympian versus Chthonian Religion’, Scripta Class. Israel. 11 (1991-2), 38–51 Google Scholar; add van Straten, F. T., Bull Ant. Besch. 49 (1974), 187-9Google Scholar (altars). Zeus Meilichios: Graf, NK, 24, 204f. See now also Scullion, S., ‘Olympian and Chthonian’, Class. Ant. 13 (1994), 75–119 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24. Vernant, Mythe et société, pp. 103–20; Bruit/Schmitt, Religion, pp. 176–214; Laurens, A.-F. and Lissarrague, F., ‘Entre dieux’, Metis 5 (1990 [1992]), 53–73 CrossRefGoogle Scholar (Sophilos).

25. In general: Verbruggen, H., Le Zeus crétois (Paris, 1981)Google Scholar; Arafat, Classical Zeus; DDD, s.v. Zeus (F. Graf).

26. Dione: Simon, E., LIMC III. (1986)Google Scholar, s.v.; Dunkel, G., ‘Vater Himmels Gattin’, Die Sprache 34 (1988-90), 1–26 Google Scholar, esp. 16f. Hera: Ruijgh, C. J., ‘Le Mycénien et Homère’, in Davies, A. Morpurgo and Duhoux, Y. (eds), Linear B: a 1984 survey (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1985), 143-90, esp. 154f. (name)Google Scholar; Graf, NK, 206 (marriage); Kyrieleis, H., ‘The Heraion at Samos’, in Marinatos, N. and Hägg, R. (eds), Greek Sanctuaries. New Approaches (London, 1993), pp. 125-53Google Scholar, esp. 141–3 (ships). In general: Kossatz-Deissmann, A., LIMC V.1 (1990)Google Scholar, s.v.

27. Talisman: Faraone, C. A., Talismans & Trojan Horses. Guardian Statues in Ancient Greek Myth and Ritual (New York, 1992)Google Scholar. Polias/Poliouchos: Graf, NK, 44, 181f, 209 (archives). Athena and initiation: Calame, C., Les choeurs de jeunes filles 1 (Rome, 1977), pp. 232-41Google Scholar; Graf, F., ‘Die lokrischen Mädchen’, Studi Storico-Religiosi 2 (1978), 61–79 Google Scholar.

28. Colbow, G., Die kriegerische Istar. Zu den Erscheinungsformen bewaffneter Gottheiten zwischen der Mitte des 3. und der Mitte des 2. Jahrtausends (Munich, 1991)Google Scholar.

29. Athena Ergane: Graf, NK, 211f. Intelligence against force: Detienne, M. and Vernant, J.-P., Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society (Hassocks, 1978), pp. 187–213 Google Scholar (seminal). In general: Demargne, P., LIMC II. 1 (1984)Google Scholar, s.v.; DDD s.v. Athena (F. Graf).

30. Etymology: Heubeck, A., Glotta 65 (1987), 179-82Google Scholar. Initiation: Jameson, M., ‘Apollo Lykeios in Athens’, Archaiognosia 1 (1980), 213-36Google Scholar; Graf, NK, 56f (Delphinios), 220–7 (Lykeios). Music: Sarti, S., ‘Gli strumenti musicali di Apollo’, AION 14 (1992), 95–104 Google Scholar. In general: Lambrinudakis, W., LIMC II.1 (1984), s.v.Google Scholar; innovative, Versnel, H. S., Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion 2: Transition & reversal in myth & ritual (Leiden, 1993), pp. 289–334 Google Scholar.

31. For his rather personal views of Greek religion see Henrichs, A., ‘“Der Glaube der Hellenen”: Religionsgeschichte als Glaubensbekenntnis und Kulturkritik’, in Calder, W. M. III et al. (eds), Wilamo-witz nach 50 Jahren (Darmstadt, 1985), pp. 262–305 Google Scholar (Artemis: 302f).

32. C. Calarne, Choeurs de jeunes filles I, passim; Graf, NK, 52 (boys), 237f (girls), 243–9 (disorder/order), 414f (boys); Dowden, K., Death and the Maiden (London, 1989)Google Scholar, passim.

33. Graf, NK, 228–43 (Phosphoros, Soteira). In general: Kahil, L., LIMC II.1 (1984)Google Scholar, s.v.; Vernant, Mortals and Immortals, pp. 195–257.

34. Bremmer, ‘“Effigies dei” in Ancient Greece: Poseidon’, in Van der Plas, Effigies Dei, pp. 35–41.

35. Burkert, , Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual (Berkeley etc., 1979), pp. 127fGoogle Scholar; O’Flaherty, W. Doniger, Women, Androgynes, and Other Mythical Beasts (Chicago and London, 1980), pp. 166–212 Google Scholar (interesting parallels, improbable interpretations).

36. A newly published Latin papyrus with the myth of Alcestis offers a further testimony for the tradition that Demeter also went down to Hades to find Persephone, cf. Harrison, G. and Obbink, D., ‘Vergil, Georgics I 36–39 and the Barcelona Alcestis’, ZPE 63 (1986), 75–81 Google Scholar.

37. Farnell, L., Cults of the Greek State 3 (Oxford, 1907), pp. 68–75 Google Scholar; add Her. 7.153 (Deinomenids); Strabo 14.1.3 (Ephesus), and her epithet Patroie in Thasos (SEG 29.766).

38. Contra Burkert (Ch. 1, note 3), p. 240. Demeter: Burkert, GR, pp. 159–61; Gasparro, G. Sfameni, Misten e culti mistici di Demetra (Rome, 1986)Google Scholar; Beschi, L., LIMC IV.1 (1988), s.v.Google Scholar; Lambert, M., ‘Nomkhubulwana: the Zulu Demeter’, Akroterion 35 (1990), 46–59 Google Scholar. Poseidon: Gruppe, O., Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte 2 (Munich, 1906), p. 1138 Google Scholar.

39. Hallager, E. et al., ‘New Linear B Tablets from Khania’, Kadmos 31 (1992), 61–87 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for the etymology of his name see Ruipérez, M. S., Opuscula selecta (Innsbruck, 1989), pp. 293-7Google Scholar.

40. Excellent surveys: Henrichs, A., ‘Loss of Self, Suffering, Violence: The Modern View of Dionysus from Nietzsche to Girard’, HSCP 88 (1984), 205-40Google Scholar and ‘“He Has a God in Him”: Human and Divine in the Modern View of Dionysus’, in Carpenter, T. and Faraone, C. (eds), Masks of Dionysus (Ithaca, 1993), pp. 13–43 Google Scholar, esp. 31–9 (Vernant cum suis). Note also Cancik, H., Dioniso in Germania (Rome, 1988)Google Scholar.

41. No mask: Bérard, C. and Bron, C., ‘Dionysos, le masque impossible’, in Besbi, F. (ed), Dionysos: mito e mistero (Ferrara, 1991), pp. 309-20Google Scholar. Polarities late: compare Henrichs, ‘Loss of Self’, 235 n. 85. Effeminate: Bremmer, , ‘Dionysos travesti’, in Moreau, A. (ed), L’Initiation 1 (Montpellier, 1992), pp. 189-98Google Scholar.

42. Agrionia: Graf, NK, 79f; Dowden, Death and the Maiden, pp. 82–5. ‘Dangerous’ Dionysus: Graf, NK, 74–96; add now P. Oxy. 53.3711 (local explanation of the epithet Omestes).

43. Seaford, R., Euripides: Cyclops (Oxford, 1984)Google Scholar; Carpenter, T., Dionysian Imagery in Archaic Art (Oxford, 1986)Google Scholar; Henrichs, A., ‘Myth Visualized: Dionysos and His Circle in Sixth-Century Attic Vase-Painting’, in Papers on the Amasis Painter and His World (Malibu, 1987), pp. 92–123 Google Scholar; F. Lissarrague, ‘The Sexual Life of Satyrs’, in Halperin, Before Sexuality, pp. 53–81; Hedreen, G. M., Silens in Attic Black-Figure Vase-Painting (Ann Arbor, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44. Graf, NK, 285–93; add Cole, S. G., GRBS 21 (1980), 226-31Google Scholar; Bierl, A., Dionysos und die griechische Tragödie (Tübingen, 1991), pp. 228fGoogle Scholar, rev. by Casadio, G., Quad. di Sţoria no. 38 (1993), 185–98 Google Scholar. For Dionysus’ role in tragedy note also des Bouvrie, S., ‘Creative Euphoria. Dionysos and the Theatre’, Kernos 6 (1993), 79–112 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45. Aphrodite: Dodds, E. R., Euripides: Bacchae (Oxford, 1960 2), p. 123 Google Scholar. Artemis: Graf, NK, 242f. Apollo: Burkert, , Homo necans (Berkeley, 1983), pp. 123-5Google Scholar; Gasparri (n. 46), LIMC s.v., 467f; Calarne, C., Thésée et l’imaginaire Athénien (Lausanne, 1990), pp. 364–9 Google Scholar.

46. For Dionysus in general see Henrichs, A., ‘Changing Dionysiac Identities’, in Meyer, B. and Sanders, E. (eds), Jewish and Christian Self-definition III (London, 1982), pp. 137-60, 213–36Google Scholar; Gaspard, C., LIMC III. 1 (1986)Google Scholar, s.v.; Versnel, , Inconsistencies, 1, 96–205 Google Scholar; Carpenter/Faraone, Masks of Dionysus; DDD, s.v. Dionysos (F. Graf).

47. Shapiro, H. A., Personifications in Greek Art (Kilchberg and Zurich, 1993)Google Scholar.

48. Contra Bruit/Schmitt, Religion, p. 185 (the Greek pantheon is a ‘rigorously logical ensemble’).

49. For this ambiguous character of some Greek gods, see also Oudemans/Lardinois, Tragic Ambiguity, pp. 95f.

50. Wathelet, P., ‘Dionysos chez Homère ou la folie divine’, Kernos 4 (1991), 61–82 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51. We must always be careful, though, to take context into account, since Dionysus regularly occupies a central place in drinking scenes.

52. Vases: Laurens/Lissarrague, ‘Entre dieux’; Arafat, Classical Zeus, pp. 177f (Zeus); Bruneau, Ph., LIMC II. 1 (1984), 491 Google Scholar (Ares). Hermes: Siebert, G., LIMC V.1 (1990)Google Scholar, s.v.; C. Miquel, ‘Images d’Hermès’ and J.-L. Durand, ‘L’Hermès multiple’, in Bron/Kassapoglou, L’image enjeu, pp. 13–23, 25–34, respectively.

53. Cf. Käppel, L., Paian (Berlin and New York, 1992), pp. 206-84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54. Graf, NK, 74–97, 125f.

55. Burkert, GR, pp. 182–9; Bruit/Schmitt, Religion, p. 177 (‘gods were not persons so much as powers’); note also Oudemans/Lardinois, Tragic Ambiguity, p. 94: ‘Greek gods are not clearcut individuals but focuses of divergent cosmological oppositions’.