But whatever the modifications, in theory or in practice, women continued to be formally excluded from public life. They were ‘citizens’ (Athens and Alexandria called them ‘townswomen’, astai) in the sense that they could make valid marriages with citizens, had legal protection (which had to be invoked by a man), and were liable to tax in states which allowed them to own property. They could not serve as magistrates or administrators, could not vote in elections or lawcourts or policy decisions. Only some religious festivals, or a national emergency, gave them the chance of collective activity. The few women who ruled as widow of a king, mother of a prince or dominant partner of a royal marriage, or who had the title but probably not the power of a magistrate (see section VII), made no difference to the general principle. It was assumed that women could not make rational judgements in politics or law and could not fight in defence of the city.