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II. Public Monuments
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 February 2016
Extract
Famously, Suetonius records the boast of the emperor Augustus that he found Rome made of brick and left it made of marble. Republican Rome had been a powerful and no doubt impressive city. Its physical fabric had been embellished over the centuries with public buildings and monuments erected largely by wealthy aristocrats. (We have already touched on the portrait-statues of these individuals, but other works, particularly temples, trumpeted their military prowess and political importance.) However, in the middle of the first century BC the city of Rome still lacked many of the splendours that even relatively unimportant Greek cities could boast, and its spaces and structures were sometimes run-down and disorganized. Powerful individuals in the late republic started to transform the city, competing to emulate the Greek towns with public works that reflected their wealth and authority.
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References
1 Suetonius, , Augustus 28.3 Google Scholar. On the remains of the city of Rome see esp. Claridge (1998). More detail, including recent bibliography is available in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae (= Steinby (1993–2000)). Richardson (1992) is shorter and in English. On Roman public monuments generally note also Hannestad (1986); Kleiner (1992).
2 Note e.g. Orlin (1997) on temples. Also Zanker (1988), 18–25.
3 Zanker (1988), 104–10; Favro (1996), esp. 24–50.
4 Excellent overview with plan in Claridge (1998), 174–228.
5 Augustus, Res Gestae 19–21. Zanker (1988), passim; Favro (1996). Note also Haselberger (2002) for maps and mapping Augustan Rome.
6 Zanker (1972); Coarelli (1983–5).
7 For overview in light of latest excavations see La Rocca (2001). Two websites also offer recent information on excavations: www.traiano.com/index_inglese.htm and www.capitolium.org/eng/ fori/fori.htm
8 Amici (1991); Ulrich (1993); La Rocca (2001), 174–84.
9 Zanker (1968); Zanker (1988), 193–203, 209–15 and passim; La Rocca (2001), 184–95.
10 E.g. Pliny, Natural History34.84; cf. Strong (1973) on ‘Roman museums’. For recent excavations see La Rocca (2001), 195–207.
11 Claridge (1998), 174–228. On imperial funerary monuments in the area see Davies (2000).
12 DeLaine (1997).
13 See Boethius (1960); Fabbrini (1985–6); Hemsoll (1990); Segala and Sciortino (1999) for up-to-date overview. On the logic behind Nero’s projects and other imperial works see Elsner (1994).
14 On variations in provincial monumentality see e.g. Millert (1990), 69–91. Note Tacitus, Agricola on Agricola encouraging the Britons to build ‘temples, fora, houses’.
15 See Brendel (1979), esp. 49–68.
16 See e.g. Brendel (1979), 59–68.
17 On historical reliefs in general see Brilliant (1974), 187–196; Bonanno (1976); Torelli (1982); Holliday (2002).
18 On sacrificial scenes etc. see Holliday (2002), 155–194.
19 Holliday (2002). One important, but problematic, republican historical relief omitted here is the stylistically varied ‘Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus’. See Torelli (1982), 5–16; Beard and Henderson (2001), 98–100.
20 On republican triumphal imagery, etc.: Holliday (2002).
21 The key publication is Pfanner (1983). On the study of Roman arches see Kleiner (1989). Note also Arch of Constantine in Chapter Six.
22 Alföldy (1995).
23 Josephus, The Jewish War 7.5.5.
24 For a summary of the arguments and evidence see Pfanner (1983), 91–2.
25 Note esp. the admiration of the pioneering Wickhoff (1900); Pfanner (1983), 58–63 is a modern sceptic.
26 On the viewer’s involvement note Bianchi Bandinelli (1970), 213–15.
27 E.g. Hassel (1966), 30.
28 See Hassel (1966); Falschen (1972); Gauer (1974); Hannestad (1986), 177–86. Also Torelli (1997) for recent (but dense) reinterpretation. Note Currie (1996) for children on arch and other public monuments.
29 Cf. Zanker (1997) on relationship between visual slogans and architectural sculpture. Note also Hölscher (1984) on imagery of public monuments and their ‘audiences’.
30 Zanker (1988). For possible reflection of a major Augustan monument in the Boscoreale silver cups see Kuttner (1995) - with much useful discussion of other public monuments.
31 See Galinsky (1996) for a critical survey of Augustan culture.
32 Generally on the Ara Pacis see: Moretti (1948); Simon (1967); Torelli (1982), 27–61; Zanker (1988), passim. Also Koeppel (1987): survey with bibliography to 1986.
33 Augustus, Res Gestae 12.
34 For debate about their identity see: Rose (1990).
35 Zanker (1988), 156–9.
36 Zanker (1988), 167–238.
37 E.g. Torelli (1982), 27–61; Elsner (1995), 192–210.
38 Buchner (1982); Zanker (1988), 143–5. Schütz (1990) for a scientist’s attack on Buchner.
39 On architectural precedents see e.g. Torelli (1982), 27–35; Castriota (1995). Ibid, for the floral decoration.
40 E.g. Neils (2001), 223–6.
41 See Conlin (1997), 11–25 for overview.
42 Conlin (1997). Conlin (45–56) also examines the confusing later reworking of the sculptures in antiquity and later; cf. Hannestad (1994), demolished by Claridge (1997). For technical discussion see also La Rocca (1983).
43 Ryberg (1949); Bonanno (1976), 23–34. There is also disagreement about the subject of the friezes. Do they represent a ceremony upon Augustus’ return? Or the dedication ceremony? Or another ideal or generic sacrifice? See e.g. Billows (1993); Galinsky (1996), 142, blurring the distinctions.
44 Many examples: see e.g. general references above or Galinsky (1992). Also Castriota (1995).
45 Ryberg (1949), 82.
46 Galinsky (1992); Galinsky (1996), esp. 141–55; Hardie (1986), esp. 125–43, 379.
47 Most commentators have a go, but see e.g. de Grummond (1990) for Pax and discussion of other theories; Spaeth (1996), 125–51.
48 Galinsky (1992); Galinsky (1996), 106–11, 148–50, cf. 229–34; Torelli (1982) 38–43.
49 Good illustration in Claridge (1998), fig. 83. For monuments on coins see also Hill (1989).
50 See e.g. Huet (1996); Zanker (1997).
51 Generally on the column, see esp.: Lepper and Freer (1988); Settis (1988); Coarelli (2000); Wilson Jones (1993), (2000), 160–75, and Rockwell (1993), passim on technical aspects. The Victoria and Albert Museum in London possesses a split plaster-cast of the whole column which allows close examination. Note also exceptionally useful illustrations and resources at: http:// cheiron.humanities.mcmaster.ca/trajan
52 Generally on the Forum see Packer (1997); abridged as Packer (2001); Steinby (1993–2000), vol. 3, 348–59.
53 For revised interpretations and new thinking on the site see: Meneghini (2001); Meneghini (2001b); La Rocca (2001), 207–10.
54 Ungaro (2002).
55 Conventional columns had, however, long been used as honorific monuments. There is much debate over possible sources - e.g. book rolls - for the format of the relief: see all works cited, esp. e.g. Settis (1988); Coarelli (2000), 11–12.
56 CIL 6.960. Claridge (1993), 9–10.
57 Claridge (1993).
58 On the narrative technique see e.g. Brilliant (1984), 90–123.
59 E.g. Bianchi Bandinelli (1970), 249–50; Conti (2001), herself identifying individual hands.
60 See Brilliant (1984), 90–123 on this ‘paranarrative’.
61 Brilliant (1984), 100–2; Coarelli (2000), 12–14.
62 See e.g. Brilliant (1984); Huet (1996); and Settis (1991) addressing earlier arguments by Paul Veyne and others.
63 See e.g. Coarelli (2000), 19–21.
64 Becatti (1960). Theodosius and Arcadius: Kiilerich (1993), 50–64.
65 See Caprino (1955); Becatti (1957); and Scheid and Huet (2000) for various new perspect ives.
66 See Pirson (1996). The idea, fuelled by the existence of Marcus Aurelius’s Meditations, was revived in the portrayal of the emperor in the film Gladiator (2000).
67 Note critique of traditional approaches to their style in Eisner (2000b).
68 Cf. Spivey (1996), 7–12.
69 E.g. Trillmich (1997), 131–41.
70 E.g. Smith (1990).
71 See Chapter Three.
72 Zanker (1988), 208–10.