1 For a general discussion of the Balkan historiography see: Fikret, Adanir and Faroqhi, Suraiya, The Ottomans and the Balkans: A Discussion of Historiography (Leiden: Brill, 2002).Google Scholar

2 For a remarkable attempt in the Ottoman case, see Karen, Barkey, Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).Google Scholar See also Kemal, H. Karpat, The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001);Google ScholarWilliam, W. Haddad and Ochsenwald, William, eds., Nationalism in a non-National State: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

3 Karen, Barkey and von Hagen, Mark, eds., After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building - The Soviet Union and the Russian, Ottoman, and Habsburg Empires (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997).Google Scholar