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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2024
Although other ages have seen a multitude of wars, in the twentieth century, we have developed a chilling efficiency for aimed conflict which seems to rise in intensity with each passing year. Historically, Catholic thought on the moral justification for war has tended to accept the possibility that, in strictly defined circumstances, a state has the right to engage in warfare. Yet, in recent years, papal statements have tended to severely limit even the few circumstances which have traditionally been permitted for the moral use of warfare by the state. In particular, John XXDI is often cited as an example of this trend.
This article will explore the thought of John XXIII on the particular issue of his interpretation of the criterion of just cause. This particular element of the set of criteria which govern the prospective use of lethal force by the state against another state, jux ad bellum, is significant for any discussion of modem just war theory. This criterion judges the moral end of the use of lethal force by the state. Traditionally, three reasons have been advanced as just causes: ad vindicandas offensiones (to gain justice over a completed offense), ad repetendas res (to retake property which has been stolen) and ad repellandas injurias (to resist an armed attack which is in progress). The trend of modern just war theories have been toward excluding the first two reasons and giving grudging acceptance to the third.
John XXIII unlike his predecessor, Pius XII, was not explicit concerning the moral permissibility of self-defense.
1 See for example, Douglass, James, The Nonviolent Cross: A Theology of Revolution and Peace, (New York: Macmillan, 1966) 81–99Google Scholar, especially 86–87; Teichman, Jenny, Pacifism and the Just War, (Oxford and New York: Basil Blackman, 1986) 15Google Scholar.
2 One of these is a statement in his last encyclical, Pacem in terris, questioning whether war is any longer an instrument of justice. The controversial passage is §127. The interpretation of this part of Pacem in terris will be discussed in detail later in this article.
3 Donal Dorr supports this interpretation of John XXIII. In his book, Option for the Poor. A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teaching (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1983) 87Google Scholar, he writes that his social theology was'. by no means a radical one, nor did it represent any major departure from the direction set by earlier popes, especially Pius XII.”
4 John XXIII, Radio Address, Hac trepida hora, 29 October 1958, English translation in The Pope Speaks 5 (1958–59) 135–38, originally published in AAS 50 (1958) 839–41.
5 Ibid., 137.
6 See for example, Pius XI, Encyclical, Urbi Arcano Dei Consilio, 23 December 1922, AAS 14 (1922) 673–700, especially § 8–15; Encyclical, Quas Primas, 11 December 1925, AAS 17 (1925) 593–610, especially § 20; Encyclical, Quadragesimo Anno, 15 May 1931, AAS 23 (1931) 177–228, especially § 137–38; Pius XII, Homily, Quoniam Paschalia Solemnia, 9 April 1939, AAS 31 (1939) 145–51; Encyclical Summi Pontificatus 20 October 1939, AAS 31 (1939) 413–53, especially § 81.
7 John XXIII, Address, Signor Cardinale, 23 December 1958, English translation in The Catholic Mind 57 (March/April 1959) 165, originally published in MS 51 (1959) 5–12.
8 Ibid., 166–67.
9 Ibid., 168.
10 Ibid 170. The original Italian text of the first line reads, “Niente di militare o di violento nei nostra atteggiamenti si uomini si fede.”
11 Matt. 10: 16.
12 Pius XII, Address, Vifu mai, 24 December 1946, Official English translation, (Washington, D.C.: National Catholic Welfare Conference, 1947), 6. Latin text published in AAS 39 (1947) 7–17. The text in question reads: “No doubt, such a disastrous war, unleashed by unlawful aggression and continued beyond lawful limits when it was clear that it was irreparably lost, could not be terminated simply in a peace which did not include guarantees that similar acts of violence would not be repeated.”
13 Elliott, Lawrence, I Will Be Called John. A Biography of Pope John XXIII, (New York: Berkley Medallion Books, 1974), 67–69Google Scholar.
14 Ibid., 70.
15 Ibid., 73.
16 John XXIII, Address, La mission, 26 November 1958, English translation in The Pope Speaks 5 (1959) 168, originally published in Discorsi (John XXIII) 1:48–49.
17 John XXIII, Address, Nous accueillions, 11 April 1959, English translation in The Pope Speaks 5 (1959) 430, originally published in AAS 51 (1959) 303–04.
18 John XXIII, Address, Vi esprimiami anzitutto, English translation in The Pope Speaks 6 (1960) 48, originally published in AAS 51 (1959) 470–73.
19 Ibid., 49.
20 John XXIII, Encyclical, Ad Petri Cathedram, English translation in The Papal Encyclicals 5:8, originally published in AAS 51 (1959) 497–531. The citation of Pope Leo XXIII is taken from his letter, Praeclara gratulationas in Acta
21 Ibid., 10.
22 Ibid., 10. The text of Leo XXIII which he cites is his Letter, Inter graves in Acta Leonis 11 (1891) 143–44.
23 Ibid., 13. The original Latin text reads: “pax est operate, non otiosa, non iners; ac praesertim pax militans est adversus omnes errores” [AAS 51 (1959)517].
24 John XXHI, Address, Voire joyeuse présence, 3 June 1962, English translation in The Pope Speaks 8 (1961–62) 143–45, originally published in AAS 54 (1962) 447–48. Although the Pope does not explicitly mention Algeria by name, Facts on File, Vol. XXII, no. 1127 (May 31‐June 6,1962) 178 reported that Vatican officials said that the Pope's statement was directed at Algeria.
25 Ibid., 144.
26 The article from Facts on File, which I cited above in fn. 24, identifies the OAS as the “European Rightist Secret Army Organization.”
27 Facts on File, Vol. XXII, no. 1127 (May 31‐June 6,1962) 178. This reference is different from that cited in fn. 24.
28 John XXIII, Radio Address, he Seigneur ecoute, 1 July 1962, English translation in N.C.W C. News Service (10 July 1962), originally published in AAS 54 (1962) 524–25 (Dated on July 5th there).
29 Ibid
30 Gumbleton, Thomas, “The Role of the Peacemaker,” in War or Peace? The Search for New Answers, edited by Shannon, Thomas A. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1982) 220Google Scholar.
31 John XXIII, Encyclical, Pacem in terris, 11 April 1963, English translation in Seven Great Encyclicals, edited by Gibbons, William J. S.J., (Glen Rock, NJ: Paulist Press, 1963) 287–326Google Scholar. On the relationship between the natural law and the community, see § 4–7.
32 Ibid., 291; §9.
33 Ibid., 294; §27. He is citing Pius XII, Radio Address, Con sempre nuova freschezza, 24 December 1942, AAS 35 (1943) 9–24.
34 Ibid., 295; §30.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid., 296,297; §34,37,38.
37 Ibid., 307; §80.
38 Ibid., 309; §93.
39 Ibid., 313; §113.
40 Ibid., 315; §§126–128.
41 John XXIII, Encyclical, Pacem in terris, 11 April 1963, AAS 55 (1963) 291.
42 A variation of the Vatican translation is found in Gremillion, Joseph, ed., The Gospel of Peace and Justice: Catholic Social Teaching Since Pope John, (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1976) 227Google Scholar. Gremillion notes on p. 201–02 that the translation is by Donald R. Campion, S.J., (New York: America Press, 1963). I assume he is speaking about a pamphlet of Pacem in terris, although it is unclear from the note. Gremillion cites Campion as saying that the text is “substantially that released by the Vatican Press Office on April 10, 1963.” Campion's text reads: “And for this reason it is hardly possible to imagine that in the atomic era war could be used as an instrument of justice.”
43 John XXIII, Encyclical, Pacem in terris, 13 April 1963, English translation in The Pope Speaks 9 (1963–64) 13–48. This text is reproduced in Michael Walsh and Brian Davies, eds., Proclaiming Justice & Peace: Documents from John XXIII ‐ John Paul II, (Mystic, CT: Twenty‐third Publications, 1984) 67, although Walsh and Davies cite the source of their translation as Our Sunday Visitor. There are a number of other texts which follow the spirit of this translation, but which replace the phrase “it no longer makes sense” with “it is irrational.” These include Walter M. Abbott, S.J., ed., The Documents of Vatican II, translated by Rev. Msgr. Joseph Gallagher, (New York: Guild Press and American Press, 1966) 293–94; Austin Flannery, OP., Vatican Council II. The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988) 989; and David J. O'Brien and Thomas A. Shannon, eds., Renewing the Earth: Catholic Documents on Peace, Justice and Liberation, (New York: Doubleday, 1977) 154. Gallagher's text reads: “Therefore in this age of ours which prides itself on its atomic power it is irrational to believe that war is still an apt means of vindicating violated rights.” Flannery's text is: “Therefore, in this age of ours, which prides itself on its atomic power, it is irrational to think that war is a proper way to obtain justice for violated rights.” The O'Brien/Shannon text reads: “Therefore, in an age such as ours which prides itself on its atomic energy it is contrary to reason to hold that war is now a suitable way to restore rights which have been violated.”
44 Ramsey, Paul, The Just War: Force and Political Responsibility (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968)Google Scholar, especially 78–79; 180–210.
45 Traupman, , The New College Latin & English Dictionary (Toronto: Bantam Books, 1988)278Google Scholar.
46 Ibid., 19.
47 Ramsey, The Just War, 204.
48 Hehir, J. Bryan, “The Just‐War Ethic and Catholic Theology: Dynamics of Change and Continuity,” in War or Peace? The Search for New Answers, 15–39, edited by Shannon, Thomas A. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1982) 20Google Scholar. Hehir notes that the encyclical is alone in contemporary papal teaching in providing “no explicit endorsement of the right of self‐defense.”
49 John XXIII, Address, La Lettera Enciclica, 11 April 1963, English translation in The Pope Speaks 9 (1963–64) 73, originally published in AAS 55 (1963) 392–95.
50 John XXIII, Address, Pax vobis pace, 13 April 1963, English translation in Catholic Messenger 81(25 April 1963) 9, originally published in AAS 55 (1963) 379–404.
51 So also, I might add, did John XXIII. He stated in his address, Pax vobis. pace, 9, that “this new document (Pacem in terris), which is linked with Mater et Magistra, on the subject of peace epitomizes the teachings of our predecessors from Leo XXIII to Pius XII.”
52 John XXIII's remarks on his acceptance of the Balzan Peace Prize are further evidence of this emphasis. See his address, Le siamo prati, 11 May 1963. English translation in The Irish Ecclesiastical Record 100 (October 1963) 266–67, originally published in AAS 55 (1963) 455–58.
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