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Legal and Non-Legal Norms – a meaningful distinction in international relations? *

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

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In his final speech at the Helsinki Conference (CSCE) in 1975, Prime Minister Wilson called the Final Act of the Conference a “moral commitment”, not an international treaty. Thus, the Act is not binding as a matter of international law, though it is quite clear from the historical context, and from the wording of the Final Act itself, that the participating states have some sort of obligation (“commitment”) to base their future conduct on the provisions of the Final Act. The Act formulates norms, rules intended to determine state behaviour, but these rules are not of a legal character. This is, apparently, the assumption underlying the Wilson statement, to which many similar statements could be added. As will be shown, a considerable body of state practice based on the same concept has developed, and points to the existence of non-legal (pre-legal, para-legal, moral, political) obligations as distinguished from legal ones. Is it a valid distinction, can a distinction really be made between legal and non-legal norms? If so, what constitutes the difference? What is the basis of obligation in both cases?

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Copyright © T.M.C. Asser Press 1980

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References

1. 30 Europa-Archiv (1975) D 543.

2. 14 ILM (1975) p. 1292. For details see below.

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25. For some examples see below, text accompanying n. 36.

26. The so-called economic summits, which have become a regular practice.

27. Conference on International Economic Co-operation, Final Document, 2 June 1977, Archiv der Gegenwart (1977), 21053 B.

28. See, for example, Bonn Summit, Final Declaration, 17 July 1978, para. 28 et seq., 33 Europa-Archiv (1978) D 462 et seq.

29. Declaration of the Tokyo Summit, 29 June 1979, 34 Europa-Archiv (1979) D 354.

30. Bonn Declaration on Hijacking, adopted 17 July 1978, by the heads of government of Canada, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the US. The Declaration provides for certain measures to be taken against states which refuse to extradite or prosecute aerial hijackers and/or fail to return hijacked aircraft. Text: 73 AJIL (1979) p. 133 et seq.

31. Rotter, loc.cit., in n. 11 at p. 420 et seq.

32. Münch, loc.cit., in n. 13 at p. 4.

33. Münch, loc.cit., in n. 13 at p. 5; Lauterpacht, E., “Gentleman's Agreements”, in Flume, et al. , eds., Internationales Recht und Wirtschaftsordnung, Festschrift für F.A. Mann zum 70. Geburtstag (1977) pp. 381398 at p. 381 et seq.Google Scholar

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37. 71 Department of State Bulletin (1974) p. 510.

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39. For the text, see 17 ILM (1978) p. 1466 et seq.

40. For the text, see 18 ILM (1979) p. 382.

41. On the difficulty in distinguishing between a political agreement to conclude a treaty and a legal pactum de contrahendo, see also Wengler, loc.cit., in n. 12 at p. 334.

42. See, Management of international water resources: institutional and legal aspect, UN Doc. ST/ESA/5, p. 30 et seq.

43. See, Oellers-Frahm, , “Die Fntscheidung des Internationalen Gerichtshofes im griechisch-türkischen Streit um den Festlandsockel in der Aegaeis”, 18 Arch VR (1978/1980) pp. 375392 at p. 385 et seq.Google Scholar

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45. Ibid., p. 51.

46. Asamoah, op.cit., in n. 17 passim; Castañeda, op.cit., in n. 17 passim.

47. Resolution 2625 (XXV).

48. Resolution 2734 (XXV).

49. Resolution 2603 (XXIV)A.

50. Asamoah, op.cit., in n. 17, at p. 46 et seq., p. 116 et seq., and p. 124 et seq.

51. Resolution 1653 (XVI).

52. Asamoah, op.cit., in n. 17, at p. 116.

53. Resolution 1962 (XVIII).

54. Asamoah, op.cit., in n. 17 at p. 157 et seq.

55. Simma, , “Methodik und Bedeutung der Arbeit der Veieinten Nationen für die Fortentwicklung des Völkerrechts”, in Kewenig, , ed., Die Vereinten Nationen im Wandel (1975) pp. 79102 at p. 97 et seqGoogle Scholar. Frowein, , “Der Beitrag dei internationalen Organisational zur Entwicklung des Vöolkerrechts”, 36 ZaöRV (1976) pp. 147167 at p. 152.Google Scholar

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57. Resolution 2574 (XXIV).

58. Anand, , Legal Regime of the Sea-Bed and the Developing Countries (1976) p. 193 et seq.Google Scholar

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60. Resolution 217 (III).

61. Resolution 1514 (XV).

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63. Asamoah, op.cit., in n. 17 at p. 191.

64. On this notion of “programme”, see R.-J. Dupuy, loc.cit., in n. 17 at p. 144 et seq.

65. Asamoah, op.cit., in n. 17 at p. 177 et seq.

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67. Virally, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 24.

68. Higgins, , “Compliance with United Nations Decisions on Peace and Security and Human Rights Questions”, in Schwebel, , ed., op.cit., in n. 6 pp. 3250 at p. 37 et seq.Google Scholar

69. Higgins, loc.cit.; Miehsler, loc.cit., in n. 17 p. 44 et seq.; see also, Golsong, loc.cit., in n. 17 at p. 35 et seq.

70. See, Khol, , “Berichtssystem”, in Wolfram, , Prill, and Brückner, , eds., op.cit., in n. 18 pp. 4858 at p. 53 et seq.Google Scholar; United Nations Action in the Field of Human Rights, UN Doc. ST/HR/2, p. 169 et seq.

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72. Sohn, , “Procedures Developed by International Organizations for Checking Compliance”, in Schwebel, , ed., op.cit., in n. 6 pp. 5156Google Scholar; United Nations Action in the Field of Human Rights, op.cit, in n. 70, at p. 169 et seq.

73. See Cadoux, , “L'organisation des Nations Unies et le problème de l'Afrique australe, L'evolution de la strategie des pressions internationales”, 23 AFDI (1977) pp. 127174.Google Scholar

74. Castañeda, op.cit., in n. 17 at p. 176.

75. Dupuy, loc.cit., in n. 17 at p. 144 et seq. See also, Virally, , “La notion de programme, Un instrument de la coopération technique multilatérale”, AFDI (1968) pp. 530553 at p. 532 et seq.Google Scholar

76. See above, text accompanying n. 9 and 10.

77. SirBailey, Kenneth, “Making International Law at the United Nations”, ASIL Proceedings (1967) pp. 233239 at p. 239Google Scholar; see also, Golsong, loc.cit., in n. 17 at p. 12 et seq.

78. Schachter, , “The Evolving Law of International Development”, 15 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law (1976) pp. 116 at p. 3 et seq.Google Scholar; Virally, loc.cit., in n. 74 at p. 531; see also, Ruge, op.cit., in n. 22 at p. 116 et seq.

79. Sloan, loc.cit., in n. 17 at p. 32.

80. Resolution 2626 (XXV).

81. In particular, Resolutions 1803 (XVII), 2158 (XXI), 3171 (XXVIII).

82. See Tomuschat, loc.cit., in n. 23; Petersmann, , “The New International Economic Order: Principles, Politics and International Law”, in Macdonald, , Johnston, and Morris, , eds., op.cit., in n. 17 pp. 449469.Google Scholar

83. For a summary of the views expressed, see 1974 UN Monthly Chronicle no. 5 p. 45 et seq.

84. Resolution 3281 (XXIX).

85. See the detailed analysis by Petersmann, , “Internationales Recht und Neue Internationale Wirtschaftsordnung”, 18 ArchVR (1978/1980) pp. 1744 at p. 34 et seq.Google Scholar, who rightly points out that a distinction has to be made between the various provisions of the Charter. See also Tomuschat, loc.cit., in n. 23.

86. See, inter alia, Petersmann, loc.cit., in n. 85; Prill, , “Weltwirtschaftsordnung”, in Wolfram, , Prill, and Brückner, , eds., op.cit., in n. 18 pp. 524536, in particular, p. 526 et seq.Google Scholar

87. See the different formulations used in this context in Resolutions 1803 (XVII) and 3171 (XXVIII). See also, Meessen, , “Völkerrechtliches Enteignungsrecht im Nord-Süd-Konflikt”, in Kewenig, , ed., Völkerrecht und international wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit (1978) pp. 1134.Google Scholar

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89. 12 ILM (1973) p. 1533.

90. Swiss Federal Council, Botschaft über die in den Multilateralen Handelsvereinbarungen unter der Ägide des GATT (Tokio-Runde) erzielten Ergebnisse, 24 September 1979, BB1. 1979 III pp. 1–581, in particular, at p. 90. See also, Graham, , “Results of the Tokyo Round”, 9 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law (1979) pp. 153175.Google Scholar

91. Jackson, John H., World Trade and the Law of GATT (1969) p. 755 et seq.Google Scholar

92. Roessler, loc.cit., in n. 14 pp. 46, 54, with further references at p. 52 n. 90. See also, Roessler, , “GATT and Access to Supplies”, 9 Journal of World Trade Law (1975) pp. 2540 at p. 39 et seq.Google Scholar

93. Basic Documents, suppl. 15 p. 64.

94. Francioni, , “International Codes of Conduct for Multinational Enterprises: an Alternative Approach”, 3 IYIL (1977) pp. 143170Google Scholar; Studier, , “Verhaltenskodizes für multinationale Konzerne und die Interessenposition der Entwicklungsländer”, 11 VRÜ (1978) pp. 411431Google Scholar; Nelli, Feroci, “Società multinazionali: verso un codice di condotta”, 33 La Comunità Internazionale (1978) pp. 356374Google Scholar; UN Docs. E/5655 paras. 41 et seq., E/C. 10/9, paras. 37–44, 57–61, 71–88, E/C. 10/17, paras. 152–170. See also, Schwartz, R., “Are the OECD and UNCTAD Codes Legally Binding?”, 11 International Lawyer (1977) pp. 529536.Google Scholar

95. Kewenig, , “Technologietransfer aus völkerrechtlicher Sicht”, in Kewenig, , ed., Völkerrecht und Internationale wirtschaftlkhe Zusammenarbeit (1978) pp. 7196, in particular, p. 78 et seq.Google Scholar; Rubin, , “International Code of Conduct on the Transfer of Technology”, 73 AJIL (1979) pp. 519520Google Scholar; Cousin, , “Le Project de la C.N.U.C.E.D. de Code international de Conduite pour le Transfert de techniques”, 19 GYIL (1976) pp. 199222 at p. 204 et seqGoogle Scholar. Draft International Code of Conduct on the Transfer of Technology, UN DOC. TD/CODE TOT/25 = 19 ILM (1980) pp. 773 etseq.

96. Davidow, and Chiles, , “The United States and the Issue of the Binding or Voluntary Nature of International Codes of Conduct Regarding Restrictive Business Practices”, 72 AJIL (1978) pp. 247276.Google Scholar

97. 15 ILM (1976) p. 967 et seq. The Decision was revised in 1979, 18 ILM (1979) p. 1171.

98. On the legal effect and practical effectivity of the OECD Guidelines, see Baade, , “The Legal Effects of Codes of Conduct for Multinational Enterprises”, 22 GYIL (1979) pp. 1152, at 29 et seq.Google Scholar

99. See Kewenig, loc.cit., in n. 95.

100. See Grewlich, , “Die UN-Konvention über einen Verhaltenskodex für Linienkonferenzen”, 35 ZaöRV (1975) pp. 742758.Google Scholar

101. A similar split can be seen between observations submitted by employers' organizations and those made by trades unions, see UN Doc. E/C. 10/20 para. 29 et seq.

101a. UN Doc. TD/RBP/CONF/10 = 19 ILM (1980) pp. 813 et seq.

102. Roessler, loc.cit., in n. 14 at p. 42 et seq.; Petersmann, , “Völkerrechtliche Fragen der Weltwährungsiefoim”, 34 ZaöRV (1974) pp. 452502Google Scholar; Pöhl, , “Von Bretton Woods nach Jamaika, Bilanz dei Reformarbeiten für die künftige Weltwährungsordnung”, 31 Europa-Archiv (1976) pp. 139146Google Scholar; Hahn, , “Elemente einer neuen Weltwährungsordnung”, in Kewenig, , ed., op.cit., in n. 87 pp. 215242.Google Scholar

103. Art. IV, as amended.

104. Roessler, loc.cit. in n. 14 at p. 44; E. Lauterpacht, loc.cit., in n. 33 at p. 382.

105. An example of a provision, where this distinction is clearly made is Art. 67 para. 1 of Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions (text in 38 ZaöRV (1978) p. 86 et seq.), which defines the protection of military elements of civil defence. While non-compliance with the conditions of protection normally only results in loss of protection, without being unlawful, one particular case of non-compliance is expressly stated to be an unlawful act.

106. See above, section 3.1.

107. Roessler, loc.cit., in n. 14 at p. 52 et seq.; for the text of the 1978 version, see 33 Europa-Archiv (1978) D 455.

108. Courteix, , “Les accords de Londres entre pays exportateurs d'équipements et de matières nucléaires”, 22 AFDI (1976) pp. 2750.Google Scholar

109. 17 ILM (1978) p. 220.

110. Statement of the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany, see Gündling, loc.cit., in n. 59 at p. 609.

111. Meyer-Wöbse, , Rechtsfragen des Exports von Kernanlagen in Nichtkernwaffenstaaten (1979) p. 61 et seq.Google Scholar; Courteix, , Exportations nucléaires et non-prolifération (1978) p. 63Google Scholar (in spite of characterizing the guidelines as a gentlemen's agreement, she appears to construe them as a bundle of unilateral (legally?) binding declarations).

112. Franko, , “US Regulation of the Spread of Nuclear Technology Through Suppliers Power: Lever or Boomerang”, 10 Law and Policy in International Business (1978) pp. 1181, 1194Google Scholar. See also Goldschmidt, and Kratzer, , Peaceful Nuclear Relations (1978) p. 43.Google Scholar

113. See above, n. 62.

114. Dupuy, loc.cit., in n. 17 at p. 140; Virally, loc.cit., in n. 31 at p. 21 et seq.; UN Doc. E/C. 10/17 para. 159.

115. Rotter, loc.cit., in n. 11 at p. 421.

116. Loc.cit., in n. 31 and 29.

117. See above, text accompanying n. 97 and 98.

118. See the implementation procedures for the Generalized System of Preferences, UN Doc. TD/B/331, no. VIII. As to the reasons for the relative lack of precision of these provision, see ibid. p. 12.

119. Schweisfutth, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 711 et seq.

120. 18 ILM (1979) p. 49.

121. On the question of extended coastal state jurisdiction, national practice seems to be grosso modo in conformity with the Negotiating Texts of the Law of the Sea Conference, see Moore, , “National Legislation for the Management of Fisheries Under Extended Coastal State Jurisdiction”, 11 Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce (1980) pp. 153182.Google Scholar

122. Delbrüuck, loc.cit., in n. 14 at p. 45; Wengler, loc.cit., in n. 12 at p. 335.

123. Wengler, loc.cit., in n. 12 at p. 343 et seq.; Castañeda, op.cit., in n. 17 at p. 176 et seq.; ICJ Advisory Opinion, Voting Procedure on Questions Relating to Reports and Petitions Concerning the Territory of South–West Africa, Seperate Opinion of Judge Lauterpacht, ICJ Reports (1955) p. 120.

124. Virally, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 30.

125. To choose a non-legal form of obligation in order to avoid adverse effects in case of non-performance is, thus, not very realistic. See, however, the American attitude with respect to the Generalized System of Preferences, as quoted by Graham, loc.cit., in n. 88 at p. 519.

126. See Delbrück, loc.cit., in n. 14 at p. 46.

127. Virally, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 29.

128. Schweisfurth, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 710 et seq.

129. UN Doc. TD/B 331, p. 6.

130. On the history of implementation by the United States, see Graham, loc.cit., in n. 88 at p. 526 et seq.

131. Schweisfurth, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 691.

132. This is often used as an argument for or against the legal character of a specific obligation. See Rotter, loc.cit., in n. 11 at p. 415; Schweisfurth, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 691. A rare example of a non-legal agreement published in the same way as an international treaty is the “Statement of Intent” between the US Department of Energy and the Ministry for Research and Technology of the Federal Republic of Germany on co-operation in coal technology, dated 7 October 1977, published Bundesgesetzblatt (1977) II, 1239. This statement is clearly not legally binding. Both parties intended to participate in a certain project: “Such intent … is signified by the signatures…” (final paragraph of the Statement).

133. Schweisfurth, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 713 et seq.

134. Roessler, loc.cit., in n. 14 at p. 41.

135. Delbrück, loc.cit., in n. 14 at p. 36 et seq.; Schweisfurth, loc.cit, in n. 3 at p. 713 et seq.

136. See above, section 3.3.4.

137. Roessler, loc.cit., in n. 14.

138. Roessler, loc.cit., in n. 14 at p. 47 et seq. On the relations between US Senate and President in the field of disarmament, see Bothe, loc.cit., in n. 36 at p. 232.

139. See Bothe, , “Rechtsprobleme grenzüberschreitender Planung”; 102 Archiv dés öoffentlichen Rechts (1977) pp. 6889 at p. 72 et seq.Google Scholar

140. See Tomuschat, , “Der Verfassungsstaat im Geflecht der internationalen Beziehungen”, 36 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung der Deutschen Staatsrechtslehrer (1977) pp. 763 at pp. 2637.Google Scholar

141. Rotter, loc.cit., in n. 11 at p. 420 et seq.

142. Baum, , “Die soziologische Begründung des Völkerrechts als Problem der Rechtssoziologie”, 1 Jahrbuch für Rechtssoziologie und Rechtstheorie (1970) pp. 257274 at p. 259.Google Scholar

143. Contra, Schachter, loc.cit., in n. 6 at p. 30 et seq.

144. See above.

145. Cf., Schachter, loc.cit., in a 6 at p. 11.

146. Virally, loc.cit., in n. 3 at p. 29.

147. Menzel, , “Estoppel-Prinzip”, in Strupp, and Schlochauer, , eds., op.cit., in n. 8, vol. 1, p. 441 et seq.Google Scholar

148. Müller, op.cit., in n. 24 at p. 5 et seq.

149. Radbruch, op.cit., in n. 5 at p. 16; cf., on the other hand, Kelsen, op.cit., in n. 5 at p. 61 et seq.; see also Geiger, op.cit., in n. 5 at p. 293 et seq.; Green, “Law and Morality in a Changing Society”, in Green, , Law and Society (1975) pp. 160.Google Scholar

150. Kelsen, op.cit., at p. 60.