1. Cf., Khol, A., “The Protection of Human Rights in Relationships between Private Individuals: the Austrian Situation” in René Cassin Amicorum Discipulorumque Liber vol. III (1971) (hereafter vol. Ill, René Cassin), pp. 195–213 at p. 198.Google Scholar This legal development was apparently little known outside the German-speaking countries at the time of the Convention's drafting. This probably explains the very widespread use, even outside of the German-speaking countries, of the expression Drittwirkung der Grundrechte. Cf., De Meyer, J., “The Right to Respect for Private and Family Life, Home and Communications in Relations between Individuals, and the resulting Obligations for State Parties to the Convention”, in Privacy and Human Rights (ed. Robertson, A.H., 1973), pp. 255–275, at p. 264.Google Scholar

2. Cf., Nipperdey, H.C., “Freie Entfaltung der Persönlichkeit” in vol. IV/2 Die Grundrechte (1962), pp. 742 et seq. at pp. 752–753.Google Scholar For a historical account consult: Leisner, W., Grundrecht und Privatrecht (1960), esp. pp. 1–112.Google Scholar The above two authors support the theory of the so-called unmittelbare Drittwirkung (direct horizontal effect). The predominant theory, that of mittelbare Drittwirkung (indirect horizontal effect) is supported by Düzig, G. See further on this subject: Dürig, G., “Grundrechte und Zivilrechtssprechung”, in Festschrift für Nawiasky (1956), pp. 157–177Google Scholar; Gamillscheg, H., “Die Grundrechte im Arbeitsrecht”, in 164 Archiv für die zivilistische Praxis (1964), pp. 385–403Google Scholar; and Schabe, J., Die sogenannte Drittwirkung der Grundrechte (1971).Google Scholar For succinct explanations concerning the basic differences between “public” and “private” law consult: David, R., and Brierley, J.E.C., Major Legal Systems in the World Today (1978), pp. 74–86Google Scholar; and Szladitz, Ch., “The Civil Law System”, in II International Encyclopaedia of Comparative Law (“The Legal Systems of the World. Their Comparison and Unification”, editor-in-chief David, R., 1969), pp. 15–76.Google Scholar

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4. Cf., Khol, A. supra at n. 1. and references therein; Müller, J.P., Die Grundrechte der Verfassung und der Persönlichkeitsschutz des Privatrechts (doctoral dissertation, University of Berne, 1964)Google Scholar; and Saladin, P., Grundrecht im Wandel (1975).Google Scholar

5. Cf., Horan, M.J., “Contemporary Constitutionalism and Legal Relationships between Individuals” in 25 ICLQ (1976), pp. 848–867CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Waldock, H., “The Legal Protection of Human Rights – National and International” in An Introduction to the Study of Human Rights (ed. Vallat, F., 1972) pp. 83–98Google Scholar; and Dominicé, Ch., Report presented at the Parliamentary Conference on Human Rights, Vienna, 18–20 10 1971 (Council of Europe, 1972) pp. 64–74.Google Scholar It appears that the first serious attempt to study this subject on a comparative basis was not made prior to 1969. Cf., vol. III, René Cassin (1971)Google Scholar, esp. Part II (“Protection of Human Rights in Relations between Private Individuals”, pp. 149–322).Google Scholar of particular interest are articles by Esen, N. (at p. 163)Google Scholar, Espersen, C. (at p. 177)Google Scholar, Favre, A. (at p. 189)Google Scholar, Khol, A. (at p. 195)Google Scholar, Mitchell, J.D.B. (at p. 235)Google Scholar, Scheuner, U. (at p. 253)Google Scholar, Zanghi, C. (at p. 269)Google Scholar and Rivero, J. (at p. 311).Google Scholar

6. Cf., SirEvans, V., “The Practice of European Countries where Direct Effects is given to the European Convention on Human Rights in Internal Law”. Written communication presented to the Colloquy on Human Rights, Athens 21–22 09 1978Google Scholar, see therein at p. 40. See also Ganshof Van der Meersch, W.J., “La Convention Européenne des Droits de l'Homme a-t-elle, dans le cadre du droit interne, une valeur d'ordre public?” in Les Droit de l'Homme en droit interne et en droit international (1968) pp. 155–251.Google Scholar An English summary of this article is reproduced in Human Rights in National and International Law (ed, Robertson, A.H., 1968) 97–143.Google Scholar

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8. Cf., Drzemczewski, A., “The Domestic Status of the European Convention on Human Rights: New Dimensions” in Legal Issues of European Integration (LIEI) 1977/1981 pp. 1–85 at pp. 48–50.Google Scholar

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10. Cf., supra n. 8 pp. 55–58.

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12. Cf., Ganshof van der Meersch, W.J. supra at n. 6.

13. Cf., Scheuner, U., “Fundamental Rights and the Protection of the Individual Against Social Groups and Powers in the Constitutional System of the Federal Republic of Germany”, in vol. III René Cassin (1971) pp. 253–268.Google Scholar

14. Horan, M.J. supra n. 5 pp. 866–867.Google Scholar A variant of the problem presently under discussion has been developed by the courts in the USA in the so-called “State action” cases. For further comments on this subject consult the article by Horan, M.J., passim; Koopmans, T., “Comparative Analysis and Evaluation”, in Constitutional Protection of Equality (1975, ed. Koopmans, T.,) pp. 213–255 at pp. 227–230Google Scholar; and Abraham, H., Freedom and the Court (1972), esp. pp. 348–367.Google Scholar

15. Article 13 of the Convention reads: “Everyone whose rights and freedoms as set forth in this Convention are violated shall have an effective remedy before a national authority notwithstanding [alors même que] that the violation has been committed by persons acting in an official capacity”. See further on this subject comments made by Mertens, P., op.cit., infra n. 59, passim; and numerous publications of Eissen, M.A., op.cit., infra n. 56.

16. Eissen, M.A., “The European Convention on Human Rights and the Duties of the Individual” in 32 Nordisk Tidsskrift for International Ret (1967) pp. 229–253, at p. 237.Google Scholar

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18. Mentioned in Collection of decisions of national courts referring to the Convention [on Human Rights] (1969, with Supplements in 1970, 1971, 1973 and 1974), (hereafter Collection), Article 6 p. 32Google Scholar; 7 Ob. 354/1962. For reference to other case-law, consult Moser, B., op.cit., infra n. 21, at pp. 89–90.Google Scholar

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20. Cf., Saxer, A., “Bestand der Grundrechte in Osterreich” pp. 462–467Google Scholar, and Rosenzweig, W., “Bedeutung der Grundrechte in Österreich” pp. 467–475Google Scholar in 5 Europ¨isch Grundrechte Zeitschrift (EuGRZ) (1978).Google Scholar

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25. Tribunal de première Instance de Bruxelles, 16 12 1972Google Scholar; Collection, Article 8 p. 28.Google Scholar See also Senelle, R., La constitution beige commentée (1974)Google Scholar, Article 22.

26. Rechtbank of Brussels, 4 April 1973; Collection, Article 4, p. 14.Google Scholar Also consult: Ganshof Van der Meersch, W.J., op.cit., supra n. 6Google Scholar; Ganshof Van der Meersch, W.J., “L'ordre public et les droits de l'homme”, in JT (1968) p. 658Google Scholar et seq.; and Perin, F., Cour de droit constitution nel (Liège, 1977) p. 119.Google Scholar

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28. Ibid., at p. 27. Art. 34 of the Cypriot Constitution was modelled upon Art. 17 of the European Convention on Human Rights.

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35. Cf., Zanghi, C, op.cit., supra n. 7. For discussion concerning the application of the Drittwirkung (third party effect) with regard to Italian constitutional norms, consult: Nickel-Lanz, C., op.cit., supra n. 7 pp. 9–13Google Scholar; Lombardi, G., I, Potere private e diritti fondamentali (1970) pp. 93–105Google Scholar; and Barile, P., Il soggetto privato nella constituzione italiana (1953)Google Scholar, passim Note may also be taken of a judgment of the Corte Costituzionale dated 9 06 1970Google Scholar, Case No. 122. in XV Giurisprudenza Costituzionale (1970) p. 1529.Google Scholar

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37. Cf., Drzemczewski, A., “The Authority of the Findings of the Organs of the European Human Rights Convention in Domestic Courts”, LIEI 1979/1981 pp. 1–50 at p. 21.Google Scholar

38. Cf., Drzemczewski, A., op.cit., supra n. 8, at pp. 46–47.Google Scholar

39. ‘Law Reports’ are irregularly published in The Times of Malta. E.g.: Case No. 78 (3 02 1969)Google Scholar; Case No. 126 (24 April 1972); and Case No. 176 (8 October 1973). The Maltese reservation to Art. 2 para. 2(a) of the Convention appears to exclude the application of Drittwirkung in certain circumstances, cf.: 9 Yearbook (1966) pp. 24–27.Google Scholar

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43. Emde Boas, M.J. van, ibid., at pp. 355–356. Cf., also Alkema, E.A., op.cit., infra n. 64 at p. 321.Google Scholar In this connection it can be noted that the French courts may also accept such an argument: see case decided by Tribunal Civil de la Seine, 22 01 1947Google Scholar, Recueil Dalloz (1947) pp. 126–127.Google Scholar

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47. Cf., Drzemczewski, A., op. cit., supra n. 8, at pp. 55–58.Google Scholar

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50. Cf., Kaufmann, O.K., “Bestand und Bedeutung der Grundrechte: Schweiz” in 5 EuGRZ (1978) pp. 475–483.Google Scholar Note should also be taken of case-law relating to Arts. 27 and 28 of the Swiss Civil Code. Cf., Nickel-Lanz, C., op. cit, supra n. 7 pp. 6–9.Google Scholar

51. Cf., Esen, B.N., op. cit., supra n. 5 pp. 163–176.Google Scholar

52. Cf., Drzemczewski, A., “The Implementation of the UK's Obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights: Recent Developments”, in XII Revue des Droits de L'Homme/Human Rights Journal (1979), esp. Part I, 3.Google Scholar

53. Blathwayt v. Lord Cawley & others [1975] 3 All ER 625 at p. 636.Google Scholar On this subject consult further Brook-Taylor, J.D.A., “Racial and Religious Restrictive Covenants” in The Conveyancer and Property Lawyer (1978) pp. 24–26.Google Scholar See also Jaconelli, J., “The European Convention on Human Rights: The Text of a British Bill of Rights?” in Public Law (1976) pp. 226–255, esp. pp. 249–50 & 253Google Scholar; and Mitchell, J.D.B., op. cit., supra n. 5 pp. 235–246.Google Scholar

54. Cf., Council of Europe Doc. H (70) 7 of September 1970: “Problems arising from the co-existence of the UN Covenants on Human Rights of the European Convention on Human Rights” p. 15.Google Scholar See also UN Doc. 2929, reproduced in ORGA 10th Session (1955). Annexes, agenda item 28 Part. III. This subject may be linked with the wider concept of the validity ergo omnes of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Cf., De Meyer, J., op. cit., supra n. 1, at p. 271.Google Scholar See also interesting article by McCarthy, T.E., “Transnationals Corporations and Human Rights” in Summary of Lectures of the 10th Study Session of the International Institute of Human Rights (Strasbourg, 07 1979), esp. pp. 22–24.Google Scholar Reference can also be made to the Barcelona Traction case, Judgment ICJ Rep. 1970 p. 32 paras. 32/33, and the Namibia case Advisory Opinion, ICJ Rep. 1971 p. 45, para. 131.Google Scholar Developments in the European Community may also be noted. Cf., “Conclusions” of Waelbroeck, M., in Les recours des individus devant les instances nationales en cas de violation du droit européen (1978) pp. 299–302 at p. 301.Google Scholar (Case No. 36/74 [1974] ECR 1405); and Easson, A.J., “Can Directives Impose Obligations on Individuals?” in 4 EurLRev (1979) pp. 67–79.Google Scholar

55. Cf., Human Rights. A Compilation of International Instruments (United Nations, 1978) pp. 3 and 8.Google Scholar Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights reads “Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant …”.

56. Cf., Eissen, M.A., “The European Convention on Human Rights and the Duties of the Individual” in 32 Nordisk Tidsskrift for international Ret (1962) pp. 230–253Google Scholar; Eissen, M.A., “La Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme et les obligations de l'individu: un mis à jour” in vol. III René Cassin (1971) pp. 151–162Google Scholar, passim; and Hahne, M.M., Das Drittwirkung in der Europäischen (Convention zum Schutz der Menschenrecht und Grundfreiheiten (doctoral dissertation, Heidelberg, 1973).Google Scholar In this context note may also be taken of Art. 32 of the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights (in force since July 1978). Cf., UN Yearbook on Human Rights (1969) pp. 390–400, at pp. 394–395.Google Scholar

57. Cf., Oral presentation of the Swedish Government's agent, Danelius, H., in Eur. Court, H.R., Series B. No. 18 (1974/1975) Swedish Engine Drivers' Union case pp. 151–153.Google Scholar Also consult comments made by Fawcett, J.E.S., at p. 124.Google Scholar In the Matznetter case Eur. Court, H.R., Series B. No. 7 (1969)Google Scholar, the Austrian Government's agent, Pahr, W., was of a more conservative leaning, see p. 228.Google Scholar

58. Emphasis added by the author. See also Williams, A.M., “The European Convention on Human Rights: A New Use?” in 12 Texas JIL (1977) pp. 279–292.Google Scholar

59. Emphasis added by the author. Cf., Eissen, M.A., op. cit., supra n. 16 at p. 244Google Scholar; Sperduti, G., “Nouvelles perspectives des Droits de l'Homme” in IX RDH/HRJ (1976) pp. 575–576Google Scholar; Privacy and Human Rights (Ed. Robertson, A.H., 1973)Google Scholar, esp. articles by Velu, J., esp. pp. 20–25Google Scholar, De Meyer, J., pp. 255–275Google Scholar, and Partsch, K.J., pp. 275–282Google Scholar; Mertens, P., Le droit de recours effectif devant les instances nationales en cas de violation d'un Droit de l'Homme (1973) pp. 103–109.Google Scholar Castberg, F., The European Convention on Human Rights (1973), notes on pp. 12–13Google Scholar, that “[T]he argument based on Art. 13 of the Convention is somewhat stronger [than Article 17]. Here it is stipulated that anyone whose rights and freedoms under the Convention have been violated, shall have an effective remedy ‘notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by a person acting in an official capacity’ and it seems to be assumed that public officials can violate the Convention, even when acting as private persons. Should we not conclude that violations can be committed by any private person and not only public officials acting off duty? However, the wording of this provision is strange in several ways. For instance, it is peculiar that the tight to a remedy is subject to a violation having taken place – thus an allegation of a violation does not suffice. The vague assumption of possible violations of the Convention by private persons seems to be too weak as a basis for reading into the Convention a general and direct obligation for private individuals to comply with it”.

60. Cf., supra n. 56. Also consult: Golsong, H., “La Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme et les personnes morales” pp. 15–33Google Scholar, and Marcus-Helmons, S., “Les personnes morales et le droit international” pp. 35–81, esp. pp. 68–73Google Scholar, in Les Droits de l'Homme et les personnes morales (First colloquy of the Human Rights Dept. of the Catholic University of Louvain, 1970).Google Scholar

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62. Eur. Court, H.R. Series B., No. 17 (1974–1975), at p. 48Google Scholar, para. 59. (Emphasis added). See also Commission's Report in the Swedish Engine Drivers' Union case supra n. 57 at p. 41Google Scholar, para. 62. As to earlier case-law consult Jacobs, F.G., The European Convention on Human Rights (1975) pp. 101 and 227Google Scholar, Eissen, M.A., op. cit., supra n. 56, esp. pp. 158–159.Google Scholar

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67. In his memorial (Doc. Cour(78)2, of 27 January 1978), before the European Court of Human Rights, Mr. Sperduti considered that an: ‘“inherent right’ must be understood as meaning a right which, because it constitutes the logically indispensable premise for, or the inevitable consequence of, the rules laid down, is so necessary in a rule-making context that it does not need to be expressly stated before it can be regarded as part of the system”. See also X v. Belgium, Application No. 4072/69 in 32 Collection pp. 80–86 at p. 86.Google Scholar (also reproduced in 13 Yearbook (1970) pp. 708–721 at p. 718).Google Scholar

68. Young & James v. UK, Application No. 7601/76, declared admissible by the Commission on 11 July 1977. Would it make a difference if the ‘closed shop’ agreement were entered into by a trade union and a private institution? Cf., Daintith, T.C., “Methods and Scope of Protection of Fundamental Rights against Public and Private Bodies in Great Britain”, in Les Droits de l'Homme et les personnes morales, op. cit., supra n. 60 pp. 123–132.Google Scholar

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70. “La Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme et les obligations de l'individu: un mis a jour”, in vol. III René Cassin (1971) pp. 151–162 at p. 162.Google Scholar

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