Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T06:47:06.209Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Classical International Law and the Jewish Question*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 May 2009

A.M.K. Rabinowicz
Get access

Extract

The treatment of nationals does not, in principle, fall within the scope of International Law. International Law governs the mutual relationship of States as political entities, similar in form and equal in law, which, under it, possess rights and obligations. But International Law also has a function in the promotion of the welfare of the individual. International relations always “contained provisions for the protection of individual needs and interests”. The Declaration of the Eight Powers, made in Vienna on February 8th, 1815 — which became Annex XV of the Treaty of the Vienna Congress of June 9th, 1815, with its universal abolition of the Slave Trade — promoted during the 19th century the principles of humanity and universal morality. But the individual, so far, has not been the direct concern of International Law — in which even the individual alien has no locus standi. At various stages, International Law has shown concern for certain rights — including those of life, liberty and property — which he may invoke in municipal courts. In return, he is subject — like every other citizen — to local laws and local jurisdiction 2, with due consideration to limitations in conventions and treaties. Of those rights nationality is the foundation “which confers alone upon the State the right of diplomatic protection.” By virtue of the bond of nationality between State and individual, the individual “is entitled to invoke the aid of a specific protector and a definite member of the international society of States has the right and reparation for their violation”. In fact, in the international sphere, a stateless person had no such protection. By taking up

“the case of one of its subjects and by resorting to diplomatic action or international judicial proceedings on his behalf, a State is in reality asserting its own rights — its right to ensure, in the person of its subjects, respect for the rules of international law”.

Type
Articles
Information
Netherlands International Law Review , Volume 24 , Issue 1-2 , May 1977 , pp. 205 - 231
Copyright
Copyright © T.M.C. Asser Press 1977

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Briggs, H.H., The Law of Nations: Cases, Documents and Notes, (2nd ed.London: Stevens. 1953), p. 97.Google Scholar

2. Cutler, T.W., “The Treatment of Foreigners”, 27 American Journal of International Law, (1933), p. 227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

3. Hudson, M.O., International Legislation, vol. IV, (Washington: Carnegie Endowment, 1931) p. 2376Google Scholar; Inter-American Convention on the Status of Aliens, Havana, 20 February 1928, art. 2; see also Norgaard, Carl Aage, The Position of the Individual in International Law; (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1962).Google Scholar

4. The Panevezys-Saldutiskis Railway Case, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 76 (1939), p. 16.Google Scholar

5. Borchard, E.M., The Diplomatic Protection of Citizens Abroad, (New York: Banks, 1918), p. 16Google Scholar; “The Access of Individuals to International Courts”, 24 American Journal of International Law, (1930), pp. 359–365.Google Scholar

6. The Panevezys Saldutiskis Railway Case, supra ibid., n. 4.

7. Borchard, E.M., The Diplomatic Protection of Citizens Abroad, supra, n. 5, p. 18.Google Scholar

8. See also, Norgaard, Carl Aage, op. cit. supra, n. 3Google Scholar; Kelsen, H., “Collective and Individual Responsibility for Acts of State in International Law”, The Jewish Yearbook of International Law, 1948, ed. Mass, Rubin, Jerusalem, pp. 226–239.Google Scholar

9. De Visscher, C., The Fundamental Rights of Man as the Basis for a Restoration of International Law, Institute of International Law, Lausanne Session, 1947, reprint in U.N. Doc. E/CN 4/40, 1 12 1947, p. 3.Google Scholar

10. Rabinowicz, A.M.K., “The Jewish Minority – The Legal Position”, The Jews of Czechoslovakia, vol. I, (Philadephia: Jewish Publication Society, 1968)Google Scholar: “Community Rights”, ibid., p. 181:

“Individual or Collective?”, ibid., p. 184; and relevant bibliography.

11. Fisher, H.A.L., A History of Europe, (London: Eduard Arnold, 1943), p. 551.Google Scholar

12. Ibid., p. 552.

13. See, Dubnow, Simon, Weltgeschichte des Juedischen Volkes, vols. VI–VII, Die Neuzeit, vols. VIII–X, Die Neueste Geschichte (Berlin: Juedischer Verlag, 1927–1929).Google Scholar

14. Stowell, E.C., International Law, Part IV, ch. III, (London: Henry Holt, 1931), p. 349.Google Scholar

15. Quotation from Davies, Lord, The Problem of the Twentieth Century (London: Ernest Benn, 1934), appendix B, p. 716Google Scholar, and an analysis of the principal works of Gentili.

16. Walker, T.A., A History of the Law of Nations (Cambridge, 1899), Vol. I, p. 255.Google Scholar

17. Grotius, H., De lure Belli et Pads Libri Tres, Book II, chs. XXV, VIII 2, translation by Whewell, W., vol. II (Cambridge, 1853), p. 440.Google Scholar

18. Lauterpacht, H., “The Grotian Tradition in International Law”, British Yearbook of International Law, 1946, p. 46.Google Scholar

19. de Vattel, M., Le Droit des Gens ou Principes de la Loi Naturelle, etc. (Leiden, 1758).Google Scholar

20. See, Winfield, P.H., “The Ground of Intervention in International Law”, British Yearbook of International Law, 1924, p. 161.Google Scholar

21. Op. cit., supra, n. 18.

22. Oppenheim – Lauterpacht, International Law, vol. I, Peace (8th ed., London: Longmans, 1955), p. 313.Google Scholar

23. Mandelstam, A., “La Protection des Minorités”, I Recueil des cours de l.'Académie de droit international (1923), pp. 388–389.Google Scholar

24. Wolf, Lucien, Notes on the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Question (London, 1919), p. 2.Google Scholar

25. Feinberg, N., “La Pétition en Droit International”, 40 Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit international, (1932 II), pp. 529–641.Google Scholar

26. Ibid., p. 545.

27. See also: Chasanowitsch, Leon and Motzkin, Leo, Die Judenfrage der Gegenwart, Dokumentensammlung (Stockholm: Bokförlaget Judäa, 1919);Google Scholar

Feinberg, N., La Question des Minorités à la Conférence de la Paix de 1919–1920 et l'Action Juive en Faveur de la Protection Internationale des Minorités, (Paris, 1929);Google Scholar

Feinberg, N.The Jewish League of Nations Societies: A Chapter in the History of the Struggle of the Jews for their Rights, (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1967);Google Scholar

Feinberg, N. “The Recognition of the Jewish People in International Law”, The Jewish Yearbook of International Law 1948, pp. 1–26.Google Scholar

Feinberg, N.The Jewish Question at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle 1818, in Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, Vol. 2, 1972, pp. 176–193.Google Scholar

Robinson, J., “From Protection of Minorities to Promotion of Human Rights”, The Jewish Yearbook of International Law 1949, pp. 115–151.Google Scholar

28. Ben-Horin, M., Max Nordau, Philosopher of Human Solidarity (London, 1956), p. 192.Google Scholar

29. Herzl, Th., Der Judenstaat – Versuch einer modernen Loesung der Judenfrage (Leipzig: M. Breitenstein, 1896)Google Scholar; Cohen, I., The Zionist Movement (New York, 1946)Google Scholar; Sokolow, N., History of Zionism (London: Longmans, 1919), vols. I–IIGoogle Scholar; Bodenheimer, H.Ch., The History of the Basle Programme (in Hebrew), Jerusalem, 1947.Google Scholar

30. Stein, L., The Balfour Declaration (London: Valentine-Mitchell, 1961).Google Scholar

31. For the period 1918–1939 see Akzin, B., States and Nations (New York: Anchor, 1966), p. 55Google Scholar, note 2; A.M. Rabinowicz, supra, n. 10, ibid., vol. II, 1971, “The Jewish Party – a Struggle for National Recognition, Representation and Autonomy”, pp. 253–346.Google Scholar

32. Freimann, A. and Krakauer, F., Frankfort (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1929), p. 189.Google Scholar

33. Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, pp. 15–16.Google Scholar

34. Jost, J.M., “Geschichte der Juden und seiner Sekten”, Schriften vom Institut zur Förderung der Israelitischen Literatur, unter Leitung von L. Philipson, A. Jellinek, M. Jost, 3 Abteilung, S. 303 (Leipzig: Dorfflingund Franke, 1859).Google Scholarwork, Dohm's, Ueber die Buergerliche Verbesserung der Juden, (Berlin: Friedrich Nicolai, 1781)Google Scholar, was of great influence on Joseph II and on his famous “Toleranzpatent” of 2 01 1872Google Scholar, with the idea of Jews being placed on a civil parity with Christians.

35. L. Wolf, ibid., supra, n. 32. In this protocol it was declared that the Jewish Questions should “equally occupy the statesmen and the friends of humanity”.

36. Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, p. 22.Google Scholar

37. Fisher, H.A.L., op. cit, supra, n. 11, pp. 141–142.Google Scholar

38. Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, p. 24.Google Scholar

39. Goodman, P., Moses Montefiore (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1925), p. 221.Google Scholar

40. L. Wolf, ibid., p. 28.

41. The Joint Foreign Committee of the London Committee of Deputies of British Jews and the Anglo-Jewish Association.

42. Adled, C. and Margalith, A., With Firmness in the Right – American Diplomatic Action Affecting Jews 1840–1945 (New York: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1946).Google Scholar

43. Full text of Sir Moses Montefiore's address to the Sultan of Morocco in Goodman, P., op. cit, supra, n. 39. pp. 146–147.Google Scholar

44. Full text, ibid., pp. 147–148.

45. Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, p. 98.Google Scholar

46. Graetz, H., Geschichte der Juden, Bd. X (Leipzig, Oskar Leiner, 1868), pp. 393–394.Google Scholar

47. Full text in Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, pp. 8–9.Google Scholar

48. Dubnow, S., op. cit., supra, n. 13, vol. IX, pp. 305–316.Google Scholar

49. Full text in Goodman, P., op. cit., supra, n. 39, pp. 70–71.Google Scholar

50. See Adler, and Margalith, , op. cit., supra, n. 42.Google Scholar

51. Roth, C., The History of the Jews in Italy (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1946), pp. 471–472Google Scholar; see also, Volli, Gemma, “II Caso Mortara nell'opinione pubblica e nella politica del tempo”Google Scholar, Bologna, , Bolletino del Museo del Risorgimento, anno V (1960), parte seconda, pp. 1087–1152.Google Scholar

52. For a detailed account of the American Intervention see, Kohler, and Wolf, , Jewish Disabilities in the Balkan States, (Baltimore: The American Jewish Committee, The American Jewish Historical Society, 1916), pp. 80–83.Google Scholar

53. Full texts of the Notes of Secretary Hay, in Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, pp. 38–45.Google Scholar

54. Full text in Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, pp. 44–45.Google Scholar

55. A.L. Goodhart, Hon. K.B.E., Q.C., was Counsel for the American Mission to Poland, 1919. He later became Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford, Editor of the Law Quarterly Review, and subsequently Master of University College, Oxford. [My friend, Dr. George Webber of London, drew my attention to this fact].

56. Graetz, H., op. cit., supra, n. 46, vol. IX, pp. 361 and 571–572.Google Scholar

57. Wolf, L., op. cit., supra, n. 24, p. 71.Google Scholar

58. Ibid., p. 67.

59. Ibid., p. 80.

60. Adler, C. and Margalith, A., op. cit., supra, n. 42, p. 179 ff.Google Scholar

61. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1973–1974, vol. 13, p. 937Google Scholar; Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971), vol. 13, p. 937.Google Scholar

62. More specifically in Wolf, L., Essays in Jewish History (London: C. Roth, 1934), pp. 10–31.Google Scholar

63. See bibliography, supra, n. 10 and 31.

64. Rabinowicz, A.M., “Human Rights in Israel”, Symposium on the International Law of Human Rights, 11 Howard Law Journal (1965), pp. 300–315.Google Scholar Reference to this article was officially made by the Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Conference Paper No. 34 of 8 March 1968, and parts of it were incorporated as an official source of a Study of Equality in the Administration of Justice, Special Raporteur Mr. Mohammed Ahmed Abu Ramat, published by the United Nations, New York. See also, Rabinowicz, A.M., “Human Rights Problems in the United States and in Israel”, 34 Jewish Social Studies (1972), pp. 207–242.Google Scholar

65. Law of the Return, 4 Laws of the State of Israel – L.S.I. (1950)Google Scholar fr. 114, as amended by the Law of the Return (Amendment) – 8 L.S.I., 144 (1954). For the definition of a “Jew” for the purposes of the Act (Law of the Return, 1950), see Rufeisen v. Minister of the Interior (1962)Google Scholar 10 P.D. 2428.