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Reflections on International Propaganda

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 May 2009

A. M. Stuyt
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Extract

Everyone is a propagandist, wittingly or unwittingly. As such, it is possible that Professor Tammes made propaganda when writing “De Toestand” (the situation), the foreign affairs column in the daily “Nieuwe Rotterdamse Courant” just before World War II. Were his articles pure information or proggganda, newsgathering or newsmaking? It is difficult to draw a sharp dividing line between these notions. If information as such should not be ‘coloured’, then propaganda has some colour if the author has the intention to spread ideas in order to affect the opinion and the behaviour of others. In that sense propaganda has a long history: from Peisistratos (600–527 B.C.) to World War II (Goebbels) and the present day. It depends on the contents of propaganda whether its effects have a national or an international character. First, the national start will be considered; second, the international effects of propaganda will be placed in the international law context; finally, some aspects of international state responsibility will be dealt with.

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Articles
Information
Netherlands International Law Review , Volume 24 , Issue 1-2 , May 1977 , pp. 274 - 286
Copyright
Copyright © T.M.C. Asser Press 1977

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References

1. “The conflict between the men who make and the men who report the news is as old as time. News may be true, but it is not truth, and they never see it the same way We are changing the world faster than we can change ourselves, and are applying to the present the habits of the past.” Reston, James B. in Foreign Affairs (USA) 1966, p. 553.Google Scholar

2. The term ‘propaganda’ seems to be used for the first time by Pope Gregory XV on 22 June 1622 when founding the Sacred Congregation for the propagation of the faith ‘De Propaganda Fide’, in order to regulate ecclesiastical affairs in the so-called ‘missionary countries’. On the history of propaganda see ProfEllul, Jacques: Histoire de la propagande, (Paris: 1967)Google Scholar; Sturminger, A.: 3000 Jahre politische Propaganda, (Vienna-Munich: 1960)Google Scholar; Erdmann, Carl: “Die Anfänge der staatlichen Propaganda im Investiturstreit”, in 154 Historische Zeitschrift (1936) p. 491–512CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Beller, E.A.: Propaganda in Germany during the Thirty Years War, (Princeton, 1940).Google Scholar

3. Propaganda and anti-propaganda are mixed up, all about the world, in a curious and contradictory way. See for instance the latest Constitution of the People's Republic of China, adopted on 17 January 1975, art. 28, para. 1: “Citizens enjoy freedom of speech, correspondence, the press, assembly, association, procession, demonstration and the freedom of strike, and enjoy freedom to believe in religion and freedom not to believe in religion and to propagate atheism.” In Peking Review of 24 01 1975, p. 17.Google Scholar

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19. “… The U.N. Conference on freedom of information, Solemnly condemns the use in peace-time of censorship which restricts or controls freedom of information, and Invites Governments to take the necessary steps to promote its progressive abolition …” (Resolution 13, as adopted by the U.N. Conference on freedom of information, Final Act E/CONF.6/79, 22 April 1948, p. 28/9.

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23. Three States made interesting reservations to this Convention: Belgium: “La délégation de la Belgique déclare considérer que le droit de brouiller par ses propres moyens les émissions abusives émanant d'un autre pays, dans la mesure où un tel droit existe conformément aux règies générales du droit international et aux conventions en vigueur, n'est en rien affecté par la convention.”; Spain: “La délégation espagnole déclare que son Gouvernement se réserve le droit de faire cesser par tous les moyens possibles la propagande qui peut nuire à son ordre intérieur et qui constitue une infraction à la convention dans le cas où la procédure envisagée par la convention ne permettrait pas de faire cesser immédiatement l'infraction.”; USSR: “La délégation de l'Union des Républiques soviétiques socialistes déclare que, selon l'avis du Gouvernement de l'Union des Républiques soviétiques socialistes, le droit d'appliquer, en attendant la conclusion de la procédure envisagée a l'article 7 de la convention, un régime de réciprocité au pays qui effectuerait a son encontre des émissions abusives, dans la mesure où un tel droit existe conformément aux règies générales du droit international et aux conventions en vigueur, n'est en rien affecté par la convention. La délégation de l'Union des Républiques soviétiques socialistes déclare que son gouvernement tout en étant prêt à appliquer, sur la base de réciprocité, les principes de la convention à l'égard de tous les Etats contractants, estime cependant que certaines des dispositions de la convention supposent, notamment en ce qui concerne la vérification des informations et les procédures prévues pour le règlement des litiges, l'existence de relations diplomatiques entre les Parties contractantes. Par conséquent, le gouvernement de l'Union des Républiques soviétiques socialistes est d'avis que, pour éviter les contestations et malentendus possibles entre les Etats parties à la convention qui n'ont pas entre eux de relations diplomatiques, il y a lieu de considérer la convention comme ne créant pas d'obligations formelles entre ces Etats.” (Trb. 1970 no. 24, P. 2).

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25. U.N.T.S. 435–191.

26. Not yet in force (?); text in 65 A.J.I.L. (1971), p. 679.Google Scholar

27. (74) 26.

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29. Trb. 1966 no. 237 and 1972 no. 38; U.N.T.S. 660–195.

30. Trb. 1969 no. 99.

31. See note 26.

32. Trb. 1951 no. 75 and 1967 no. 130; U.N.T.S. 75–287.

33. Trb. 1967 no. 31 and 1969 no. 203; U.N.T.S. 610–205.

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42. (34) U.N. A/10010, p.20, 8 August 1975.

43. “The conduct of an organ of an entity which is not part of the formal structure of the State or of a territorial governmental entity, but which is empowered by the internal law of that State to exercise elements of the governmental authority, shall also be considered as an act of the State under international law, provided that organ was acting in that capacity in the case in question.”

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45. Staatsverlag der DDR 1974. Cf. art. 6, para. 5: “Militaristische und revanchistische Propaganda in jeder Form, Kriegshetze und Bekundung von Glaubens, Rassen und Völkerhass werden als Verbrechen geahndet.” See also A. von Verdross: “Die völkerrechtliche Verantwortlichkeit der Sowjetunion für die Handlungen der russischen kommunistischen Partei und der 3. Internationale”, Z.f. öff.Recht 1930, p. 577Google Scholar; Dambmann, G.: Propaganda im Friedensvölkerrecht, (Schotten 1953), p. 111Google Scholar; Murty, B.S.: Propaganda and World Public Order (New Haven: Yale U.P. 1968) p. 114–23Google Scholar (claims relating to the political Party and agencies of public information in a totalitarian State).

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47. Report 1975 para. 40; the same expression was repeated in para. 43.