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The Geostationary Orbital Position as a Natural Resource of the Space Environment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 May 2009

Carl Q. Christol
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Extract

International Law governs man's use of outer space, per se, the Moon, and celestial bodies, e.g., the space environment. World natural resources situated in the space environment include geostationary orbital positions and the solar energy that in the future may be captured by a satellite power system (SPS). Such resources can be consumed. However, these resources are renewable. Use does not deplete them.

Type
Articles
Information
Netherlands International Law Review , Volume 26 , Issue 1 , May 1979 , pp. 5 - 23
Copyright
Copyright © T.M.C. Asser Press 1979

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References

1. The figure of 180 satellites placed along the equator was mentioned by the Colombian delegate to the Legal Sub-committee of COPUOSon 31 March, 1977. UN Doc. 105/C.2/SR.277, p. 3, 5 April, 1977.

2. This is based on the following proposition: “The circumference of the geostationary orbit is approximately 165,000 miles. A one-degree segment of this orbit is about 460 miles. If satellite station-keeping were good to about ca. 0.1 degree (actually it can be maintained more precisely), then one degree of orbit space could hold five satellites with virtually no danger of collision, and the full 360° could accommodate 1,800 satellites. Actually, since the geostationary orbit has considerable depth and width and present satellites range between ten and twenty feet in diameter, the orbit could physically accommodate a much greater number without collision. The question of orbital slot scarcity thus has little to do with purely physical limitations.” Hinchman, Walter R., “Issues in Spectrum Resource Management”, in The Future of Satellite Communications Resource Management and the Needs of Nations, The Twentieth Century Fund, p. 52 (1970).Google Scholar

3. Edelson, Burton I. and Morgan, Walter L., “Orbital Antenna Farms”, 15 Astronautics & Aeronautics, No. 9, p. 22 (09 1977).Google Scholar

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8. Ibid.

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10. Ibid., pp. 7, 33.

11. UN Doc. A/AC.105/203, p. 17, 29 August, 1977.

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27. Final Acts, WARC BS, Annex 7, pp. 1–2.Google Scholar Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (e.i.r.p.) is defined as “the product of the power of an emission as supplied to an antenna and the antenna gain in a given direction relative to an isotropic antenna”. Final Acts, WARC ST, 23 UST 1527, 1579, TIAS 7435. The 1977 WARC BS Conference agreed to Annex 8 entitled “Technical Data Used in Establishing the Provisions and Associated Plan and Which Should be Used for Their Application”. The Conference under the heading of basic technical characteristics, in paragraph 3.10 inferred to the “Plan” for orbital spacing for Regions 1 and 3. This was ‘based generally on nominal orbital positions spaced uniformly at intervals of 6°”. Reference was also made to satellite station-keeping, as follows: “Space stations in the broadcasting-satellite service must be maintained in position with an accuracy of better than appr. 0.1° in both the N-S and E-W direction. (These tolerances lead to a maximum excursion of appr. 0.14° from the nominal satellite position.).” Final Acts, WARC BS, Annex 8.

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31. Article 1, paragraph 2. See also Article 3.

32. UN Doc. A/AC. 105/62, pp. 3–4 (June 1969).

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34. See Appendix.

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36. Ibid., p. 81. Article three provides “States Parties to the Treaty shall carry on activities in the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations, in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international cooperation and understanding”.

37. Ibid., p. 82.

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40. Ibid., p. 54.

41. Article four imposes restrictions on the use of nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction.

42. Ibid., p. 54.

43. Ibid., pp. 55–56.

44. Ibid. p. 59.

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47. Rankin, Ibid., p. 104. Citing, United States Department of State, Office of Telecommunications, Position Paper on the Allocation of Orbit Positions and Specific Radio Frequency Channels, WARC ST (06 1971).Google Scholar

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid., p. 105.

50. Ibid., p. 103.

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52. Rankin, , op. cit., p. 169.Google Scholar The tools used by the IFRB allow for the verification of coverage areas of the satellite transmitting antenna beams, verification of link parameters for individual assignments, and for the completion of incompatibility analysis for the WARC BS “Plan”. International Telecommunication Union. Seventeenth Report by the International Telecommunication Union on Telecommunication and the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. UN Doc. A/AC.105/213, p. 20, 22 12, 1977.Google Scholar

53. Annex 6 to Final Acts of the WARC BS, 1977.

54. Ibid., paragraph 4.

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58. Treaties in Force, US Department of State Publication 8934 (1978).Google Scholar

59. UN Doc 105/C.1/SR.199, p. 2, 28 February, 1978.

60. Ibid., p. 4.

61. UN Doc. A/AC.105/203, p. 5, 29 August, 1977.

62. A notable illustration is General Assembly Resolution 1803 (XVII) of 14 December, 1962. Actually, General Assembly Resolutions dating from 1952 advance this claim. The Bogotá Declaration made reference to General Assembly Resolution 2692 (XXV) of 11 12, 1970Google Scholar, entitled “Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources of Developing Countries and Expansion of Domestic Sources of Accumulation for Economic Development”. This Resolution spoke of land and marine resources but not air or space resources. Also motivating the Bogota States was a general feeling that proposals emanating from the ITU relating to orbits and frequencies were impracticable and unfair.

63. Glazer, J Henry, op. cit., pp. 81, 114.Google Scholar

64. “First Meeting of Equatorial Countries”, p. 2, mimeo.Google Scholar

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid., p. 5.

67. Ibid., pp. 5–6.

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70. Ibid., p. 6.

71. Ibid., p. 7.

72. Ibid.

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74. Ibid., p. 8.

75. Butler, Richard E., “World Administrative Radio Conference for Planning Broadcasting Satellite Service”, 5 Journal of Space Law 97 (1977)Google Scholar; UN Doc. A/AC.105/C2/SR 273, p. 4, 28 March, 1977.

76. UN Doc. A/AC.105/L.94, 21 June, 1977; UN Doc. A/32/20, Annex VI, p. 29, 1977.

77. Physical Nature and Technical Attributes of the Geostationary Orbit, UN Doc. A/AC. 105/203, 29 August, 1977.

78. UN Doc. A/AC/105/C.1/SR.199, p. 9, 28 February, 1978.

79. Ibid.

80. UN Doc. A/AC. 105/PV. 176, p. 21, 27 July, 1977.

81. UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/SR.277, p. 2, 5 April, 1977.

82. Ibid., p. 4.

83. UN Doc. 105/C.2/SR.280, p. 2, 7 April, 1977.

84. UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.1/SR.199, p. 6, 28 February, 1978.

85. Ibid., pp. 7–8.

86. Ibid., p. 8.

87. UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.1/SR. 200, p. 3, 1 March, 1978.

88. UN Doc. A/AC.105/216, p. 26, 6 March, 1978.

89. UN Doc. A/AC.105/218, pp. 9–10, 13 April, 1978. Compare the Report of the Scientific and Technical Sub-committee on the Work of its Fifteenth Session, UN Doc. 105/216, pp. 26–27, 6 March, 1978.

90. Glazer, , op. cit., p. 82.Google Scholar