Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T04:58:01.381Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

War Crimes and Genocide in History, and the Evolution of Responsive International Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

David M. Crowe
David M. Crowe*
Affiliation:
Department of History and Geography, School of Law, Elon University, Elon NC 27244, USA. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

War crimes and genocide are as old as history itself. So are regulations and laws that protect individuals during time of war, whether they be combatants or civilians. The Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu wrote in the fifth century BCE that it was important to treat “captured soldiers well in order to nurture them [for our use]. This is referred to as ‘conquering the enemy and growing stronger.'” Yet several centuries later, Qin Shi Huangdi, China's first emperor, committed horrible atrocities during his military campaigns to unite China. Eric Yong-Joon Lee adds that it should be remembered that the Qin emperor also created that country's “first managed international legal order.” But, according to Robert Cryer, it was the West, not Asia, that created the world's first “international criminal law regime.” This “regime,” R. P. Anand argues, was, in many ways, a form of “Victor's Justice“ or “ruler's law,” since it was forced on Asia and Africa by the West in the nineteenth century.

Type
Articles
Information
Nationalities Papers , Volume 37 , Issue 6 , November 2009 , pp. 757 - 806
Copyright
Copyright © 2009 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aboul-Enein, Youssef H., and Zuhur, Sherifa. Islamic Rulings on Warfare. Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2004.Google Scholar
Justice Project, Afghan. War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, 1978–2001: Documents and Analysis of Major Patterns of Abuse in the War in Afghanistan. Kabul: Afghan Justice Project, 2005.Google Scholar
Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006.Google Scholar
Ali, Javed. “Chemical Weapons and the Iran-Iraq War: A Case Study of Noncompliance.” The Nonproliferation Review 8, no. 1 (2001): 43–58.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. Israel/Lebanon: Israel and Hezbollah Must Spare Civilians: Obligations under International Humanitarian Law of the Parties to the Conflict in Israel and Lebanon/N/N. New York: Amnesty International, 2006.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. Israel/Opt: Fuelling [sic] Conflict: Foreign Arms Supplies to Israel/Gaza. New York: Amnesty International, 2009.Google Scholar
Anand, R. P. “Universality of International Law: An Asian Perspective.” Essays in International Law, no. 23 (2007): 21–40.Google Scholar
Ankarloo, Bengt. “Witch Trials in Northern Europe, 1450–1700.” In Witchcraft and Magic in Europe, edited by Ankarloo, Bengt and Clark, Stuart. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.Google Scholar
“Another Armenian Holocaust.” New York Times, 10 September 1895.Google Scholar
Aquinas, St. Thomas. Summa Theologica. Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. 2. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1947.Google Scholar
Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins, 2003.Google Scholar
Ball, Howard. Prosecuting War Crimes and Genocide: The Twentieth Century Experience. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Ban, Ki Moon. “A Climate Culprit in Darfur.” Washington Post, 16 June 2007, A15.Google Scholar
Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Beeching, Jack. The Chinese Opium Wars. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975.Google Scholar
Bell, David. The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007.Google Scholar
Benvenisti, Egal. “The Origins of the Concept of Belligerent Occupation.” Law and History Review 26, no. 3 (2008): 621–48.Google Scholar
Bloxham, Donald. The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Bodde, Derk. China's First Unifier: A Study of the Chi'in Dynasty as Seen in the Life of Li Ssū, 280?–208 B.C. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1967.Google Scholar
Boister, Neil, and Cryer, Robert, eds. Documents on the Tokyo International Military Tribunal-Charter, Indictment, and Judgements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Boister, Neil, and Cryer, Robert, eds. The Tokyo International Military Tribunal: A Reappraisal. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Boston, Daniella. “Genocide in Uganda: The African Nightmare Christopher Hitchens Missed.” Huffington Post, 17 May 2006, 1, <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/daniella.boston/genocide-in-uganda-the-af_b_21150.html>..>Google Scholar
Brandt, Nat. Massacre in Shansi. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Burg, Steven L., and Shoup, Paul S. The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 2000.Google Scholar
Burlingame, Michael. Abraham Lincoln: A Life. 2. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Calendar of Court Proceedings before the ICTY (November 2008). “International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,” 1–2, <http://www.haguejusticeportal.net/eCache/DEF/10/019.html>..>Google Scholar
Carey, Brian Todd, Allfree, Joshua B., and Cairns, John. Warfare in the Medieval World. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2006.Google Scholar
De las Casas, Bartolomé. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Edited and translated by Griffin, Nigel. London: Penguin Books, 1992.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency. Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction Programs. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2002.Google Scholar
Chang, Iris. The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 1997.Google Scholar
Chang, Maria Hsia, and Barker, Robert P. “Victor's Justice and Japan's Amnesia: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial Reconsidered.” In Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice, edited by Peter, Li. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2006.Google Scholar
Ch'ien, Ssu-ma. “Basic Annals of Ch'in Shih-huang.” In The First Emperor of China, edited by Yu-ning, Li. White Plains: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1975.Google Scholar
“China and Darfur: The Genocide Olympics?” Washington Post, 14 December 2006, A30.Google Scholar
Churchill, Ward. Indians Are Us? Culture and Genocide in Native North America. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Cohen, Leonard J. Broken Bones: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Cohen, Shayne. “Masada: Literary Tradition, Archaeological Remains, and the Credibility of Josephus.” Journal of Jewish Studies 33 (Spring–Autumn, 1982): 385–405.Google Scholar
Cohn, Marjorie. “Injustice at Guantanamo: Torture Evidence and the Military Commissions Act.” GlobalResearch.ca, 5 April 2008, 1–2, <http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.phpcontext=va&aid=8090>..>Google Scholar
“Compounding the Crime.” The Economist, 14–20 March 2009, 3–4.Google Scholar
Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. New York: Dell, 1960.Google Scholar
Die Constitutio Criminalis Carolina. <http://www.latein-pagina.de/iexplorer/hexen1/carolina.htm>..>Google Scholar
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crimes of Genocide. 9 December 1948, United Nations General Assembly, <http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html>..>Google Scholar
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and in their Destruction, Harvard Sussex Program on CBW Armament and Arms Limitation, <http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hsp/1972.html>..>Google Scholar
Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949, <http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d/6756482d86146898c125641e004aa3c5>..>Google Scholar
Cope, Richard. The Ploughshares of War: The Origins of the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Cottrell, Arthur. The First Emperor of China. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1981.Google Scholar
Council of Europe. “Initial Conclusions of the Visit of the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Chechen Republic of the Russian Federation.” Strasbourg, 6 March 2007, <https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1103233>..>Google Scholar
Council on Foreign Relations. “Bouckaert: Both Israel and Hezbollah Committing War Crimes,” <http://www.cfr.org/publication/11252>..>Google Scholar
“Counting the Cost.” The Economist, 24–30 January 2009, 53.Google Scholar
The Covenant of the League of Nations. <http://avalonlaw.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp>..>Google Scholar
Craven, Brian. The Punic Wars. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Crowe, David M. The Holocaust: Roots, History, and Aftermath. Boulder: Westview Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Cryer, Robert. Prosecuting International Crimes: Selectivity and the International Criminal Law Regime. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Dadrian, Vahakn N. The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus. 6th ed. New York: Berghahn Books, 1995.Google Scholar
Dallaire, Lt. Gen. Romeó. Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Declaration of the Rights of Man—1789. The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rightsof.asp>..>Google Scholar
Des Forges, Alison. “Leave None to Tell the Story”: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999.Google Scholar
Documents on the Tokyo International Military Tribunal: Charter, Indictment and Judgements. edited by Boister, Neil and Cryer, Robert. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: W. W. Norton, 1999.Google Scholar
Drew, Christopher Drew. “Human Rights Group Says 29 Civilians Were Killed by Israeli Air Attacks in Gaza.” New York Times, 1 July 2009, A14.Google Scholar
Dubuisson, M. “‘Delendo Est Carthago': remise en question d'un stéréotype.” In Studia Phoenicia. X, Punic Wars, edited by Devijver, H. and Lipiński, E. Leuven: Vitgeverij Peeters, 1989.Google Scholar
Dudwick, Nora. “Armenia: The Nation Awakens.” In Nations & Politics in the Soviet Successor States, edited by Bremmer, Ian and Taras, Ray. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Durant, Will. The Age of Faith: A History of Medieval Civilization—Christian, Islamic, and Judaic—from Constantine to Dante: A.D. 325–1300. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1950.Google Scholar
Edgerton, Robert B. Warriors of the Rising Sun. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997.Google Scholar
Eimer, David. “Dalai Lama Condemns China's ‘Cultural Genocide.'” The Telegraph, 16 March 2008, <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1581875/Dalai-Lama-condemns-Chinas-cultural-genocide-of-Tibet.html>..>Google Scholar
Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Rebellion. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Esposito, John I. Islam: The Straight Path. Rev. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Fairbank, John King. The Great Chinese Revolution, 1800–1985. New York: Harper & Row, 1986.Google Scholar
French, Patrick. Tibet, Tibet: A Personal History of a Lost Land. New York: Vintage, 2003.Google Scholar
Friedel, Frank. Francis Lieber: Nineteenth Century Liberal. Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1968.Google Scholar
Gay, Peter. The Cultivation of Hatred. III, The Bourgeois Experience—Victoria to Freud. New York: W. W. Norton, 1993.Google Scholar
Government of Tibet in Exile. Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts. Dharamsala: Government of Tibet in Exile, 1996, <http://www.tibet.com/WhitePaper/white7.html>..>Google Scholar
Grotius, Hugo. The Rights of War and Peace. Book II. edited by Tuck, Richard, from the edition of Jean Barbeyrac. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2005.Google Scholar
Hagan, Lieutenant Colonel William R. “Overlooked Textbooks Jettison some Durable Military Law Legends.” Military Law Review, no. 163 (1986): 163–202.Google Scholar
Hankel, Gerd. Die Leipziger Prozesse: Deutsche Kriegsverbrechen und ihre strafrechtliche Verfolgung nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg. Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003.Google Scholar
Harris, Whitney R. Tyranny on Trial: Trial of the Major German War Criminals at the End of World War II at Nuremberg, Germany, 1945–1946. Rev ed. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Hertigan, Richard Shelly. Lieber's Code and the Law of War. Chicago: Precedent, 1983.Google Scholar
Herzig, Edmund M. “Armenians.” In The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union, edited by Smith, Graham. London: Longman, 1990.Google Scholar
Hiro, Dilip. The Longest War: The Iran–Iraq Military Conflict. New York: Routledge, 1992.Google Scholar
Hitchens, Christopher. “Childhood's End.” Vanity Fair, January 2006, http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2006/01/hitchens200601.Google Scholar
Hochschild, Adam. King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999.Google Scholar
Horne, John, and Kramer, Alan. German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. The Rise of Modern China. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Hull, Isabel V. Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. A Face and a Name: Civilian Victims of Insurgent Groups in Iraq. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2005.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. Uganda: Country Summary (January 2005). New York: Human Rights Watch, 2005.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. Precisely Wrong: Gaza Civilians Killed by Israeli Drone-Launched Missiles. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. “UN: Support Goldstone Investigation into Gaza War Violations.” 6 May 2009, 1–3, <http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/05/06/un-support-goldstone-investigation-gaza-war-violations>..>Google Scholar
Ignatieff, Michael. “The Legacy of Raphael Lemkin.” Lecture, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC, 13 December 2000, <http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/analysis/details.php?content=2000-12-13>..>Google Scholar
International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur. Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General. Geneva: United Nations, 2005.Google Scholar
International Commission of Jurists. Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic. Geneva: Government of Tibet in Exile, 1960, <http://www.com/Resolution/icj60.html>..>Google Scholar
International Committee of the Red Cross. Observations on the Legal Issues Related to the Use of Cluster Munitions. Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, 2007.Google Scholar
International Court of Justice. The Hague, Press Release No. 2009/17, 21 April 2009.Google Scholar
International Criminal Court. “Situations and Cases,” 1–2, <http://www.icc-cpi.int/menus/ICC/Situations+and-cases/>..>Google Scholar
Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “Behind the Headlines: Legal and Operational Aspects of the Use of Cluster Bombs,” 5 September 2006, 1–2, <http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/About+the+Ministry/Behind+the+headlines/legal+and+oper>..>Google Scholar
Janjić, Dušan. “Serbia between the Past and Future.” In The Yugoslav War, Europe and the Balkans: How to Achieve Security?, edited by Bianchini, Stefano and Shoup, Paul. Ravenna: Longo Editore, 1995.Google Scholar
Jewish Peace News. “IDF Ends Investigation into Gaza War Crimes Investigations.” 3 April 2009, 1–4, <http://jewishpeacenews.blogspot.com/2009/04/idf-ends-investigation-into-gaza-war.html>. This article lists Harel's articles in Ha'aretz. These are all available online in English..+This+article+lists+Harel's+articles+in+Ha'aretz.+These+are+all+available+online+in+English.>Google Scholar
Katz, Yaakov. “IDF Doubts Credibility of Gaza Report.” Jerusalem Post (online ed.), 30 June 2009, 1–2, <http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellitecid=1246296537077&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FPrinter>..>Google Scholar
Kelsay, John. “Al-Shaybani and the Islamic Law of War.” Journal of Military Ethics 2, no. 1 (2003): 63–75.Google Scholar
Khrushchev, Nikita. Khrushchev Remembers. Translated by Strobe Talbot. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970.Google Scholar
Kochavi, Arieh J. Prelude to Nuremberg: Allied Wear Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Korean War Atrocities: Report of the Committee on Government Operations made through its Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations by its Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities pursuant to S. Res. 40, January 11, 1954. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1954.Google Scholar
Kramer, Alan. “The First Wave of International War Crimes Trials: Istanbul and Leipzig.” European Review 14, no. 4 (2006): 441–55.Google Scholar
Kramer, Alan. Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Krammer, Arnold. Prisoners of War: A Reference Handbook. New York: Praeger, 2007.Google Scholar
Krawchenko, Bohdan. Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Kurkjian, Vahan M. A History of Armenia. New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union, 1958.Google Scholar
Laband, John. Kingdom in Crisis: The Zulu Response to the British Invasion of 1879. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Laws of War: General Orders No. 100. Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, 24 April 1863. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, <http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lieber.htm>..>Google Scholar
of War: Laws, Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague II). 29 July 1899. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, <http://www.yale/edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague02.htm>..>Google Scholar
Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV). 18 October 1907, <http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague04.htm>..>Google Scholar
Lee, Eric Yong-Joong. “Early Development of Modern International Law in East Asia—With Special Reference to China, Japan, and Korea.” Journal of the History of International Law 4, no. 1 (2002): 42–76.Google Scholar
Lewy, Guenter. The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Li, Peter. “The Nanking Holocaust: Memory, Trauma, and Reconciliation.” In Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice, edited by Peter, Li. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2003.Google Scholar
Liber, George. “Ukraine and Three Twentieth-Century Cataclysms.” Paper presented at “The Ukrainian Famine-Genocide: Reflections after 75 Years” conference, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 12 September 2008.Google Scholar
Little, Charles E. “The Authenticity and Form of Cato's Saying ‘Carthago delenda Est.'” The Classical Journal 29, no. 6 (1934): 429–35.Google Scholar
Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Abridged and edited with an Introduction and Notes, by Winkler, Kenneth P. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1996.Google Scholar
Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government and a Letter Concerning Toleration. edited by Shapiro, Ian. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Lopez-Terres, Patrick. “Arrest and Transfer of Indictees: The Experiences of the ICTY.” Paper presented at the 2006 ICLN “International Cooperation on Transnational Crime” conference, 15 December, 2006.Google Scholar
Luther, Martin. Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen [The Freedom of a Christian], <http://wsu.edu/~dee/REFORM/FREEDOM.HTN>..>Google Scholar
MacDonough, Giles. The Last Kaiser: The Life of Wilhelm II. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Malcolm, Noel. Bosnia: A Short History. New York: New York University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Marius, Richard. Martin Luther: The Christian between God and Death. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq. Boulder: Westview Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Maslen, Stuart, and Wiebe, Virgil. Cluster Munitions: A Survey of Legal Responses. London: Landmine Action, 2007.Google Scholar
Matthaüs, Jürgen. “The Lessons of Leipzig: Punishing German War Criminals after the First World War.” In Atrocities on Trial: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Prosecuting War Crimes, edited by Heberer, Patricia and Matthaüs., Jürgen Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008.Google Scholar
McCarthy, Rory. “Hamas Accused of War Crimes in Gaza.” guardian.uk.co, 23 March 2009, 1–2, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/23/gaza-war-crimes-hamas/print>..>Google Scholar
Meron, Theodore. War Crimes Law Comes of Age: Essays. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Meron, Theodore. The Humanization of International Law. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2006.Google Scholar
Military Commissions Act of 2006. 3 January 2006, <http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/C?c109:./temp/~c1099Zil9a>..>Google Scholar
Monter, William. “Witch Trials in Continental Europe.” In Witchcraft and Magic in Europe, edited by Ankarloo, Bengt and Clark, Stuart. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Mortimer, Geoff. Eyewitness Accounts of the Thirty Years War, 1618–48. New York: Palgrave, 2002.Google Scholar
The New Complete Works of Josephus. Translated by William Whiston. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1999.Google Scholar
“News Chronology.” Chemical Weapons Convention Bulletin, no. 28 (June 1995): 20.Google Scholar
Nicolle, David. Crusader Warfare. I, Byzantium, Europe and the Struggle for the Holy Land, 1050–1300. London: Continuum, 2007.Google Scholar
“Not Nearly Back to Normal.” The Economist, 30 April 2009, 49.Google Scholar
Nuremberg Trials Final Report Appendix D: Control Council Law No. 10: Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes Against Peace and Against Humanity. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, <http://www.yalelaw.edu/lawweb/avalon/int/imt10.htm>..>Google Scholar
O'Donnell, James J. Augustine: A New Biography. New York: HarperCollins, 2005.Google Scholar
Ó Siocháin, Séamas, and O'Sullivan, Michael, eds. The Eyes of Another Race: Roger Casement's Congo Report and 1903 Diary. Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. 9 December 1948, <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genocid.htm>..>Google Scholar
Office of United States Chief Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality. Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression. I. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1946.Google Scholar
Ögren, Kenneth. “Humanitarian Law in the Articles of War Decreed in 1621 by King Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden.” International Review of the Red Cross, no. 313 (1996): 1–3, <http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteengO.nsf/html/57JN8D>..>Google Scholar
Osmanczyk, Edmund Jan, and Mango, Anthonhy. Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements. Volume 4. London: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Oswalt, Wendell H., and Neely, Sharlotte. This Land was Theirs: A Study of North American Indians. 5th ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1996.Google Scholar
Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912. New York: Perennial/HarperCollins, 2003.Google Scholar
Payaslian, Simon. United States Policy toward the Armenian Question and the Armenian Genocide. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.Google Scholar
Peskin, Victor. International Justice in Rwanda and the Balkans: Virtual Trials and the Struggle for Cooperation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Pidd, Helen. “Gaza Offensive: Israeli Military Says No War Crimes Committed.” guardian.co.uk. 1–2, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/31/israeli-military-denies-war-crimes-gaza/print>..>Google Scholar
Ponte, Carla Del. Madame Prosecutor: Confrontations with Humanity's Worst Criminals and the Culture of Impunity: A Memoir. New York: Other Press, 2008.Google Scholar
The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste 1974–1999. A Report by the Benetech Human Rights Analysis Group to the Commission on Reception, Truth, and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste, <http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_01.shtml>..>Google Scholar
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Convention of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol 1), <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3?b/93.htm>..>Google Scholar
Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (Geneva Protocol), 17 June 1925.Google Scholar
Prunier, Gérard. The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Prunier, Gérard. Darfur: A 21st Century Genocide. 3rd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Purcell, Victor. “The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963.Google Scholar
Ramet, Sabrina P. “A Theory about the Yugoslav Meltdown: The Serbian National Awakening as a ‘Revitalization Movement.'” Nationalities Papers 32, no. 4 (2004): 765–79.Google Scholar
Rawlings, Louis. “Hannibal the Cannibal? Polybius on Barcid Atrocities.” Cardiff Historical Papers, 1–11, <http://174.125.47.132/search?q.cache.neOxygYip9wJ:www.ct.ac.uk/hisar/resources/CHP9>..>Google Scholar
Rehman, Javaid. “The Concept of Jihad in Islamic International Law.” Journal of Conflict and Security Law 10, no. 3 (2005): 321–43.Google Scholar
Rejali, Darius. Torture and Democracy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Report of Charles S.P. Bowles Foreign Agent of the United States Sanitary Commission. New York: Thomson Gale Reprint, 1969.Google Scholar
Roberts, Michael. Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden, 1611–1632. II, 1626–1632. London: Longman, Green, 1958.Google Scholar
Rome Statue of the International Criminal Court (U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9).Google Scholar
Rummel, R. J. China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2007.Google Scholar
“Rushing off a Cliff.”. New York Times, 28 September 2006, 2, <http://www.truthout.org/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view/cgi/64/22818>..>Google Scholar
Santosuosso, Antonio. Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels. Boulder: Westview Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Sarajevo Research and Documentation Center (Istraživačko dokumentacioni centar). Human Losses in Bosnia and Herzegovina 91–95. Sarajevo: Sarajevo Research and Documentation Center, 2007.Google Scholar
Satkauskas, Rytis. “Soviet Genocide Trials in the Baltic States: The Relevance of International Law.” Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 7 (2004): 388–409.Google Scholar
Schabas, William S. An Introduction to the International Criminal Court. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Schrecker, Joseph E. Imperialism and Chinese Nationalism: Germany in Shantung. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law. 5th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Shaw, Stanford. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. II, Reform, Revolution, and Republic. The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Smith, Jane I. “Islam and Christendom: Historical, Cultural, and Religious Interaction from the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries.” In The Oxford History of Islam, edited by Esposito, John L. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. New York: W. W. Norton, 1990.Google Scholar
Spence, Jonathan D. God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996.Google Scholar
Stannard, David E. American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (25 May 1993).Google Scholar
Stern, Fritz. Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder, and the Building of the German Empire. New York: Vintage Books, 1979.Google Scholar
Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History. 2nd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Sun-tzu's Art of War. In The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China. Translated by Ralph D. Sawyer. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Sun, Tzu. The Art of War: The New Translation. Translated by J. H. Huang. New York: Quill, 1993.Google Scholar
Suny, Ronald Gregor. Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Tabean, Ewa, and Bijak, Jakub. “War Related Deaths in the 1992 Armed Conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina: A Critique of Previous Estimates and Recent Deaths.” European Journal of Population 21 (2005): 187–215.Google Scholar
Tanaka, Yuki. Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1985.Google Scholar
Taylor, Telford. The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials. Boston: Little Brown, 1992.Google Scholar
Telushkin, Rabbi Joseph. Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible. New York: HarperCollins, 1997.Google Scholar
Theriault, Henry C. “Rethinking Dehumanization in Genocide.” In The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies, edited by Hovannisian, Richard. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2007.Google Scholar
Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.Google Scholar
“A Thousand Tragedies. But is it a Crime?” The Economist, 17–23, January 2009, 49.Google Scholar
Timmerman, Kenneth R. The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991.Google Scholar
Torrell, Jean-Pierre. Saint Thomas Aquinas. I, The Person and his Work. Translated by Robert Royal. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Treaty of Kars (23 October 1921). Text in Russian and English, <http://en.wikisource.org/Treaty_of_Kars>..>Google Scholar
The Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Turkey Signed at Sèvres August 10, 1920, <http://history.acusd.edu/gen/versaillestreaty.html>..>Google Scholar
Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919). <http://firstworldwar.com/source/versailles.hte>..>Google Scholar
Tripp, Charles. A History of Iraq. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. “UN Appoints Jewish Judge to Head Gaza Inquiry into Alleged War Crimes.” Mail Online, 3 April 2009, 1–4, <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/worldnews/article-1167138/UN-appoints-Jewish-judge-head-Gaza-inquiry-alleged-war-crimes.html>..>Google Scholar
UN Office of the Special Adviser on Africa (OSAA). “DDR and Transitional Justice.” Issue Paper presented at the Second International Conference on DDR and Stability in Africa, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2007, 12–14 June.Google Scholar
“UN Warning on Mid-East Crimes.” BBC News, 20 July 2006, 1, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5197544.stm>..>Google Scholar
United Nations. Resolution 582 (1986). Adopted by the Security Council at its 2666th meeting, 24 February, 1986.Google Scholar
United Nations. Resolution 598 (1987). Adopted by the Security Council at its 2750th meeting, 20 July 1987.Google Scholar
United Nations. Resolution 612 (1988). Adopted by the Security Council at its 2812th meeting, 9 May 1988.Google Scholar
United Nations. Resolution 620 (1988). Adopted by the Security Council at its 2825th meeting, 26 August 1988.Google Scholar
United Nations, General Assembly. Resolution 63/3. Request for an advisory opinion on the International Court of Justice on whether the unilateral declaration of independence of Kosovo is in accordance with international law, 8 October 2008.Google Scholar
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. “Rape and Abuse of Women in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia.” Commissioner on Human Rights Resolution 1993. United National Human Rights Commission, Geneva, 2003.Google Scholar
United Nations Security Council. Resolution 1244, S/RES/1244(1999), 10 June 1999.Google Scholar
Wang, Edward. “Report Says Valid Grievances at Root of Tibet Unrest.” New York Times, 6 June 2009, A4.Google Scholar
War Crimes: Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Times of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949, <http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d/6756482d86146898c125641e004aa3c5>..>Google Scholar
“War Crimes in Chechnya and the Response of the West: Testimony before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.” Human Rights Watch, 2004, <http://hrw.org/english/docs/2000/03/01/russia11094_txt.htm>..>Google Scholar
Watkins, John C. Jr., and Paul Weber, John, eds. War Crimes and War Crime Trials: From Leipzig to the ICC and Beyond: Cases, Materials and Comments. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Ward, Andrew. Our Bones are Scattered: The Cawnpore Massacre and the Indian Mutiny of 1857. New York: Henry Holt, 1996.Google Scholar
“A Warrant for Bashir.” The Economist, 7–13 March 2009, 20.Google Scholar
Wedgwood, C. V. The Thirty Years War. New York: Anchor Books, 1961.Google Scholar
Wei, Jing. 100 Questions about Tibet. Beijing: Beijing Review Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Welch, Jeanie M. The Tokyo Trial: A Bibliographic Guide to English-Language Sources. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Wilson, Richard Ashby. “Judging History: The Historical Record of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.” Human Rights Quarterly 27 (2005): 908–42.Google Scholar
Winthrop, William. Military Law and Precedents. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920.Google Scholar
Wolowyna, Oleh. “The Famine-Genocide of 1932–1933: Estimation of Losses and Demographic Impact.” Paper presented to “The Ukrainian Famine-Genocide: Reflection after 75 Years” conference University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 12 September 2008.Google Scholar
The Yi Ho Tuan Movement of 1900. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1976.Google Scholar
Yinan, Hu. “Release from a Cycle of Servitude.” China Daily, 22 January 2009, 7.Google Scholar
Zhonglu, Liu, Chu Lizhong, and the Information Office of the State Council, People's Republic of China. China's Tibet. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press, 2000.Google Scholar