Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T04:21:15.117Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Understanding ethnicity-based autonomy movements in India's northeastern region

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Komol Singha*
Affiliation:
Department of Economics, Sikkim University, Gangtok, India

Abstract

Soon after independence, India's northeastern region was swamped in a series of conflicts starting with the Naga secessionist movement in the 1950s, followed by others in the 1960s. The conflicts intensified and engulfed the entire region in the 1970s and 1980s. However, in the 1990s, following reclamation of ethnic identities amid gnawing scarcities, the conflicts slowly turned into internal feuds. Consequently, alliance and re-alliance among the ethnic groups transpired. In the 2000s, it finally led to the balkanization of ethnicity-based autonomy movements in the region. Unfortunately, the state's ad-hoc measures failed to contain protected conflicts and, instead, compounded the situation and swelled hybrid ethnic identities.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © 2017 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Balcells, Laia, Daniels, Lesley-Ann, and Escribà-Folch, Abel. 2016. “The Determinants of Low-Intensity Intergroup Violence: The Case of Northern Ireland.” Journal of Peace Research 53 (1): 3348.Google Scholar
Baqai, Huma. 2004. “Role of Ethnicity in the Conflict Spectrum of South Asia.” Pakistan Horizon 57 (4): 5768.Google Scholar
Barman, Bidhan. 2014. “Assertion of Dimasa Identity: A Case Study of Assam.” IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science 19 (1): 4549.Google Scholar
Baruah, Sanjib. 2003. “Confronting Constructionism: Ending India's Naga War.” Journal of Peace Research 40 (3): 321338.Google Scholar
Basumatary, J. 2014. “Quest for Peace in Assam– A Study of the Bodoland Movement.” Manekshaw Paper No. 44. New Delhi: Centre for Land Warfare Studies.Google Scholar
Bhaumik, Subir. 2012. Tripura – Ethnic Conflict, Militancy and Counterinsurgency Policies and Practices No. 52. Kolkata: Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group.Google Scholar
Blagojevic, Bojana. 2004. “Ethnic Conflict and Post-conflict Development: Peace-Building in Ethnically Divided Societies.” Unpublished PhD dissertation submitted to the Graduate School – Newark, Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey.Google Scholar
Borkakoti, Jitendralal. 2013. “Demographic Invasion, Assamese Identity and Geopolitics.” Space and Culture India 1 (1): 2842.Google Scholar
Bose, Tapan Kumar. 2013. “Without Integration, No Lasting Settlement.” The Hindu, January 22. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/without-integration-no-lasting-settlement/article4329606.ece.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R. 1997. Theft of an Idol Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
CDPS. 2015. Insurgency Overview. Guwahati: Centre for Development and Peace Studies.Google Scholar
Chowdhury, Jyoti Lal. 2007. “ISI-Aided ULFA Targets Indians Congress Liaison with Terror Outfit Backfires.” Organizer.org. http://organiser.org/archives/historic/dynamic/modules06f7.html?name=Contentandpa=showpageandpid=169andpage=17.Google Scholar
Cornell, Svante E. 2002. “Autonomy as a Source of Conflict: Caucasian Conflicts in Theoretical Perspective.” World Politics 54 (2): 245276.Google Scholar
Das, Narottam K. 2009. “Identity Politics and Social Exclusion in India's North-East: The Case for Re-distributive Justice.” Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology 6 (1): 117.Google Scholar
Debbarma, Mohan. 2016. “Identity, Conflict and Development: A Study of Borok Community in Tripura.” In Identity, Contestation and Development in Northeast India, edited by Singha, Komol and Amarjeet Singh, M., 151172. New Delhi: Routledge.Google Scholar
Deori, N. 2013. “Ethnic Fratricide and the Autonomous Councils of Assam, Yojana.” Accessed August 1. http://yojana.gov.in/fatricide.asp Google Scholar
Dudková, Bc. Eliška. 2013. “Consociational Practices as a Conflict Regulation Strategy: A Comparative Study of Ethno-nationalist Movements in Northeast India.” Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Social Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. http://is.muni.cz/th/274014/fss_m/Dudkova_Thesis_Final.pdf.Google Scholar
EPW. 2005. “Naga-Manipuri Conflict: Intractable Problem.” Economic and Political Weekly, editorial, 40 (34): 36993700.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D. 2000. “Ethnicity, Insurgency and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97 (1): 7590.Google Scholar
Gangte, Thangkhotinmang S. 2009. “Struggle for Identity and Land among the Hill Peoples of Manipu.” Kuki International Forum. http://kukiforum.com/2009/08/struggle-for-identity-and-land-among-the-hill-peoples-of-manipur-2/.Google Scholar
George, N. 2012. “The Naga Imbroglio: A Grassroots Perspective.” CLAWS Journal (Winter): 2333.Google Scholar
Ghosh, Kunal. 2008. Separatism in North-East India. New Delhi: Suruchi Prakashan.Google Scholar
Gohain, Hiren. 2014. “A Note on Recent Ethnic Violence in Assam.” Economic and Political Weekly 49 (13): 1922.Google Scholar
Goswami, Namrata. 2011. Armed Ethnic Conflicts in Northeast India and the Indian State's Response: Use of Force and the “Notion” of Proportionality (Working Paper No. 60. South Asia Institute). Heidelberg: Heidelberg University.Google Scholar
Haokip, Rebecca C. 2008. “The Kuki-Paite Conflict in the Churachandpur District of Manipur.” In Conflict Mapping and Peace Processes in North East India, edited by Jeyaseelan, Lazar, 185208. Guwahati: North Eastern Social Research Centre.Google Scholar
Hassan, M. Sajjad. 2006. “Explaining Manipur's Breakdown and Mizoram's Peace: The State and Identities in North East India.” Working Paper No. 79, Crisis States Programme, Development Studies Institute, London School of Economics.Google Scholar
Hussain, Manirul. 1987. “Tribal Movement for Autonomous State in Assam.” Economic and Political Weekly 22 (32): 13291332.Google Scholar
Hussain, Manirul, and Phanjoubam, Pradip. 2007. A Status Report on Displacement in Assam and Manipur. Kolkata: Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group.Google Scholar
Inoue, Kyoko. 2005. “Integration of the North-East: The State Formation Process.” In Sub-Regional Relations in the Eastern South Asia, with Special Focus on India's North Eastern Region, edited by Mayumi Murayama, Kyoko Inoue, and Hazarika, Sanjay, 1631. Chiba, Japan: The Institute of Development Economics.Google Scholar
Johnson, Carter Randolph. 2010. “Partition as a Solution to Ethnic Civil War: Statehood, Demography, and the Role of Post-war Balance of Power for Peace.” Unpublished PhD dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School, College Park (Maryland): University of Maryland.Google Scholar
Johnstone, James. 1896. My Experiences in Manipur and the Naga Hills. London: Sampson Low, Marston.Google Scholar
Khorshidi, Majid, Yok Fee, Lee, and Soltani, Fakhreddin. 2010. “Ethnic Secessionism in Iran: Accusation or Fact.” Journal of Politics and Law 3 (2): 269276.Google Scholar
Kipgen, Nehginpao. 2013. “Politics of Ethnic Conflict in Manipur.” South Asia Research 33 (1): 2138.Google Scholar
Kom, Ch. Sekholal. 2011. “Ethnic Politics in the Hills of Manipur.” Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences 3 (1): 147167.Google Scholar
Kom, Ch. Sekholal. 2015. “Ethno-nationalism: Competing Micro-nationalist Dissents in Manipur.” Social Change 45 (2): 289307.Google Scholar
Kom, Ch. Sekholal, and Brahma, Chintu. 2012. “Sixth Schedule: Negotiating Ethnic Autonomy Discourses in Northeast India.” The Journal of African and Asian Local Government Studies 1 (4): 3054.Google Scholar
Kotwal, Dinesh. 2000. “The Naga Insurgency – the Past and the Future.” Strategic Analysis 24 (4): 751772.Google Scholar
Kumar, Narender. 2012. “Contours of Conflict in Manipur: A Prognosis.” CLAWS Journal (Winter): 3445.Google Scholar
Kumar, Anand, Aphun, Kamei, Thangjam, Homen, and Bijoykumar Singh, Khuraijam. 2011. “Situating Conflict and Poverty in Manipur.” CPRC-IIPA Working Paper No. 37, Chronic Poverty Research Centre, New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration.Google Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. 2002. “The Wave of Power-Sharing Democracy.” In The Architecture of Democracy: Constitutional Design, Conflict Management, and Democracy, edited by Reynolds, Andrew, 3754. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Montalvo, Jose G., and Reynal-Querol, Marta. 2005. “Ethnic Polarization, Potential Conflict and Civil Wars.” The American Economic Review 95 (3): 796816.Google Scholar
Motiram, Sripad, and Sarma, N. 2014. “The Tragedy of Identity – Reflections on Violent Social Conflict in Western Assam.” Economic and Political Weekly 49 (11): 4553.Google Scholar
Nag, Sajal. 2002. “Naga Identity: Formation, Construction, Expansion.” In Dimensions of Development in Nagaland, edited by Joshua Thomas, C. and Gurudas, Das, 141155. Delhi: Regency.Google Scholar
Nag, S. 2003. “North East: A Comparative Analysis of Naga, Mizo and Meitei Insurgencies.” Faultlines 14, Article No. 4. Accessed 14 January 2015. http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/Volume 14/Article4.htmGoogle Scholar
Nagel, Joane. 1994. “Constructing Ethnicity: Creating and Recreating Ethnic Identity and Culture.” Social Problems 41 (1): 152176.Google Scholar
Nandy, Chandan. 2003. “Bangla Migrants Pose Threat.” The Hindustan Times, November 7. http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/printedition/071103/detNAT07.shtml.Google Scholar
Nath, Manoj Kumar. 2003. “Bodo Insurgency in Assam: New Accord and New Problems.” Strategic Analysis 27 (4): 533545.Google Scholar
Ngaihte, Thangkhanlal. 2013. “Manipur and Its Demand for Internal Autonomy.” Economic and Political Weekly 48 (16): 2021.Google Scholar
Oinam, Bhagat. 2003. “Patterns of Ethnic Conflict in the North-East.” Economic and Political Weekly 38 (21): 20312037.Google Scholar
Oinam, Bhagat. 2008. State of States: Mapping India's North-East (Working Paper 12). Washington, DC: East-West Center.Google Scholar
Phanjoubam, Pradip. 2002. “Ethnicity, Identity and Conflict.” Fault-line 10 (5). http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume 10/Article5.htm.Google Scholar
Phukan, Mridula Dhekial. 2013. “Ethnicity, Conflict and Population Displacement in Northeast India.” Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 1 (2): 91101.Google Scholar
Piang, L.L.K. 2015. “Overlapping Territorial Claims and Ethnic Conflict in Manipur.” South Asia Research 35 (2):158–176.Google Scholar
Pillai, Sushil K. 1999. “Anatomy of an Insurgency: Ethnicity and Identity in Nagaland.” Fault-line 3. http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume3/Fault3-GenPillaiF.htm.Google Scholar
Prabhakara, M. S. 2005. “Manufacturing Identities?Frontline 22 (20). http://www.flonnet.com/fl2220/stories/20051007002609500.htm.Google Scholar
Rajagopalan, Swarna. 2008. Peace Accords in North-East India: Journey over Milestones Policy Studies No. 46. Washington, DC: East West Center.Google Scholar
Rammohan, E. N. 2011. Countering Insurgencies in India: An Insider's View. New Delhi: Vij Book India.Google Scholar
Ravi, R. N. 2012. “Chasing a Chimeric Peace.” The Hindu, November 12. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/chasing-a-chimeric-peace/article4095592.ece.Google Scholar
Ravi, R. N. 2014. “Nagaland: Descent into Chaos.” The Hindu, January 23. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/nagaland-descent-into-chaos/article5606432.ece.Google Scholar
Robinson, Andrew. 2005. “The Rhizomes of Manipur.” IAPS. http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/shared/shared_iaps/docs/Manipur_illustrated.pdf.Google Scholar
Rupachandra, Y. 2012. “November 17. “90s’ Riots Loom Over Manipur?” Seven Sister's Post, Guwahati. Accessed 4 December 2012. http://sevensisterspost.com/90s-riots-loom-over-manipur/ Google Scholar
Sahaya, D. N. 2011. “How Tripura Overcame Insurgency.” The Hindu, September 19. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/how-tripura-overcame-insurgency/article2465348.ece.Google Scholar
Sahni, Ajay. 2002. “Survey of Conflicts and Resolution in India's Northeast.” Fault-lines 12 (3). http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume12/Article3.htm.Google Scholar
Sashinungla. 2005. “Nagaland: Insurgency and Factional Intransigence.” Fault-lines 16 (4). http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume 16/Article4.htm#13.Google Scholar
Savage, Victor R. 2005. “Identity Issues and Cross-cultural Tensions in Southeast Asia.” In The Naga Challenged – Southeast Asia in the Winds of Change, edited by Savage, Victor R. and Tan-Mullins, May, 375398. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic.Google Scholar
Sengupta, S. 2014. “Identity Assertion by the Bodos of North East India: Exploring the Role of the Educated Middle Class.” Global Journal of Human-Social Science 14 (2): 1014.Google Scholar
Sharma, Chandan Kumar. 2012. “The State and the Ethnicisation of Space in Northeast India.” In Shifting Terrain: Conflict Dynamics in Northeast India, edited by Mahanta, Nani G., 120. New Delhi: DVS.Google Scholar
Sharma, Sushil Kumar. 2015. The Naga Peace Accord: Manipur Connections. IDSA Policy Brief. New Delhi: Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses.Google Scholar
Sharma, Sushil Kumar. 2016. “Naga Peace Accord and the Kuki and Meitei Insurgencies in Manipur.” IDSA Policy Brief, January. New Delhi: Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses.Google Scholar
Shashikumar, V. K. 2007. “Finding Manipur's Hidden War.” HIMAL South Asian, Special Issue. Accessed 22 February 2013. http://himalmag.com/component/content/article/1147-Finding-Manipur%E2%80%99s-hidden-war.html Google Scholar
Shimray, U. A. 2007. Naga Population and Integration Movement Documentation. New Delhi: Mittal.Google Scholar
Singh, Gurinder. 2007. “A Decade of Ceasefire in Nagaland.” Strategic Analysis 31 (5): 815832.Google Scholar
Singh, K. Gyanendra. 2009. “Understanding the Ethnic Faultiness in Manipur: A Historical Perspective.” The Social Scanner 1 (July): 113128.Google Scholar
Singh, M. Amarjeet. 2010. Conflicts in Manipur. Backgrounders on Conflict. Bangalore: National Institute of Advanced Studies, Conflict Resolution Programme.Google Scholar
Singh, Laitonjam Muhindro. 2011. “Naga Movement in Manipur – Its Genesis and Impact on State Politics.” Manipur Online, March 21. http://manipuronline.com/research-papers/naga-movement-in-manipur-its-genesis-and-impact-on-state-politics/2011/03/21.Google Scholar
Singha, Komol. 2012. “Identity, Contestation and Development in North East India: A Study of Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.” Journal of Community Positive Practices 12 (3): 403424.Google Scholar
Singha, Komol. 2013. “Conflict, State and Education in India: A Study of Manipur.” American Journal of Educational Research 1 (6): 181193.Google Scholar
Singha, Komol, and Amarjeet Singh, M. 2016a. Identity, Contestation and Development in North-East India. New Delhi: Routledge.Google Scholar
Singha, Komol, and Amarjeet Singh, M. 2016b. “Politics of Peace Accords in Northeast India.” In Identity, Contestation and Development in North-East India, edited by Singha, Komol and Amarjeet Singh, M., 86101. New Delhi: Routledge.Google Scholar
Srikanth, H. (2015). “Ethnic Militancy in Assam– Whom to Blame?Economic and Political Weekly 50 (5): 1719.Google Scholar
Suan, H. Kham Khan. 2009. “Hills-Valley Divide as a Site of Conflict: Emerging Dialogic Space in Manipur.” In Beyond Counter-insurgency: Breaking the Impasse in Northeast India, edited by Sanjib, Baruah, 263289. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Vogt, M. 2014. “Ethnic Mobilisation, Equality and Conflict in Multi-ethnic States.” Working Paper 76. Zurich: Centre for Comparative and International Studies.Google Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 1989. “The Indian Paradox: Violent Social Conflicts and Democratic Politics.” In The Indian Paradox: Essays in Indian Politics, edited by Varshney, Ashutosh and Weiner, Myron, 2137. New Delhi: Sage.Google Scholar
Yenning. 2013. “The Manipur Project of NSCN-IM.” The Sangai Express. http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-22949-the-manipur-project-of-nscnim/.Google Scholar
Zartman, I. William. 2001. “The Timing of Peace Initiatives: Hurting Stalemates and Ripe Moments.” The Global Review of Ethno-Politics 1 (1): 818.Google Scholar