Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T17:16:32.507Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Orthodoxy and nation-building: Nichifor Crainic and religious nationalism in 1920s Romania

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Roland Clark*
Affiliation:
Department of History, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States

Abstract

This article uses the early career of Nichifor Crainic (1889–1972) to show why Orthodox Christianity became a central element of Romanian ultra-nationalism during the 1920s. Most Romanian nationalists were atheists prior to the First World War, but state-sponsored nation-building efforts catalyzed by territorial expansion and the incorporation of ethnic and religious minorities allowed individuals such as Crainic to introduce religious nationalism into the public sphere. Examining Crainic's work during the 1920s shows how his nationalism was shaped by mainstream political and ideological currents, including state institutions such as the Royal Foundations of Prince Carol and the Ministry of Cults and of Art. Despite championing “tradition,” Crainic was committed to changing Romanian society so long as that change followed autochthonous Romanian models. State sponsorship allowed Crainic to promote religious nationalism through his periodical Găndirea. Crainic's literary achievements earned him a chair in theology, from which he pioneered new ways of thinking about mysticism as an expression of Romanian culture and as crucial to understanding the Romanian nation.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © 2012 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anonymous. “Scopul nostru.” Dacia 23 Nov. 1918: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “Ce este “Cuvăntu;”.” Cuvăntul 6 Nov. 1924: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Anonymous. “Al doilea proces Nichifor Crainic-Liviu Rebreanu.” Adevarul 24 Mar. 1932: 7. Print.Google Scholar
Basciani, Alberto. La difficile unione: la Bessarabia e la grande Romania, 1918–1940. Rome: Aracne, 2007. Print.Google Scholar
Bădescu, Laura. Retorica poeziei religioase a lui Nichifor Crainic. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 2000. Print.Google Scholar
Berggren, Lena. “Completing the Lutheran Reformation: Ultra-nationalism, Christianity and the Possibility of ‘Clerical Fascism’ in Interwar Sweden.” Clerical Fascism in Interwar Europe. Eds. Feldman, Matthew and Turda, Marius. London: Routledge, 2008. 91102. Print.Google Scholar
Bozdoghină, Horia. Nicolae Iorga şi Partidul Nationalist Democrat ìn via&tdotb;a politică a Romăniei. Sibiu: Editura Universită&tdotb;ii Lucian Blaga, 2007. Print.Google Scholar
Breazul, George. “Arhiva fonograma.” Boabe de grău. 3.8 (1932): 321–47. Print.Google Scholar
Bucur, Maria. Heroes and Victims: Remembering War in Twentieth Century Romania. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2009. Print.Google Scholar
Caron, Vicki. “Catholic Political Mobilization and Antisemitic Violence in Fin de Sie&tdotb;cle France: The Case of the Union Nationale.” The Journal of Modern History. 81.2 (2009): 294346. Print.Google Scholar
Cenuşă, Mircea. “Nichifor Crainic – Portret ìn oglindă,Manuscriptum. 26.1–4 (1995): 94. Print.Google Scholar
Clark, Roland. Nationalism, Ethnotheology and Mysticism in Interwar Romania. Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies. No. 2002. Pittsburgh: Center for Russian and East European Studies, U of Pittsburgh, 2009. Print.Google Scholar
Crohmălniceanu, Ovid S. Literatura romăna ìntre cele două războaie mondiale. 2 vols. Bucharest: Editura Universalia, 2003. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Şesuri natale. Craiova: “Ramuri”, 1916. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Zămbete ìn lacrimi. Bucharest: Biblioteca Scriitorilor Romăni, 1916. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Rodica Maniu.” Dacia 24 Dec. 1918: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Sărmanii vagabonzi!” Dacia 16–29 Jan. 1919: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Universitatea Ardealului.” Dacia 29 Mar 1919: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Icoanele Vremii. Bucharest: Editor H. Steinberg, Librar, 1919. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Ţăranul ìn artă.” Dacia 1 Jan. 1919: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Darurile pămăntului. Bucharest: Cartea Roma&tdotb;neasca&tdotb;, 1920. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Privelişti Fugare. Bucharest: Editura Librăriei Pavel Suru, 1921. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Isus ìn ţara mea.” Găndirea. 2/11–12 (1923): 117–21. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Politică şi ortodoxie.” Găndirea. 3.5 (1923): 7783. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Ìn pragul “Căminul Cultural”.” Lamura. 4.10–11 (1923): 513–16. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Parsifal.” Găndirea. 3.8–9–10 (1924): 181–86. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Ìntre govern şi Sf. Sinod.” Cuvăntul 12 Nov. 1924: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Pentru romăni creştini.” Cuvăntul 27 June 1925: 1. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “A două neatărnare.” Găndirea. 6.1 (1926): 15. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Ìntre Apollo şi Isus.” Găndirea. 7.1 (1927): 14. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Tradiţie şi internationalism.” Găndirea. 8.2 (1928): 7677. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Spiritualitate.” Găndirea. 8.8–9 (1928): 307–10. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Sensul tradiţiei.” Găndirea. 9.1–2 (1929): 111. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Mihai D. Ralea.” Găndirea. 9.3 (1929): 114. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Ortodoxismul nostru.” Găndirea. 9.3 (1929): 114–15. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “D. M. Ralea ìncearca să polemizeze.” Găndirea. 9.11 (1929): 370–72. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Zece ani.” Gandirea. 10.12 (1930): 407–15. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Ţara de peste veac. Bucharest: Cartea romăneasca, 1931. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Stat şi cultură.” Găndirea. 11.9 (1931): 325–30. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Curs de istoria literaturii bisericeşti şi religioase moderne. Bucharest: Universitatea din Bucureşti, 1933. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Ortodoxie şi etnocraţie. Bucharest: Editura Cugetarea, 1937. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Ìn anul XVI.” Găndirea. 16.1 (1937): 4647. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Spiritul Basarabean.” Straja Neamului. 2.4–5 (1938): 1. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “Simbolul androgin.” Găndirea. 18.6 (1939): 289–96. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Lupta pentru spiritul nou: Germania şi Italia ìn scrisul meu dela 1932 ìncoace. Bucharest: Editura Cugetarea, 1941. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Zile albe, zile negre: Memorii (I). Bucharest: Casa Editurială “Găndirea”, 1991. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Nostalgia Paradisului. Iaşi: Editura Moldova, 1994. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “To Lucian Blaga,” 12 Jan. 1921. Manuscriptum. 26.1–4 (1995): 102. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “To Lucian Blaga,” May 1921. Manuscriptum. 26.1–4 (1995): 106–07. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “To Cezar Petrescu,” May 1921. Manuscriptum. 26.1–4 (1995): 108–09. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “To D. Mugur,” 23 Mar. 1922. Manuscriptum. 26.1–4 (1995): 114. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “To Lucian Blaga,” 1922. Manuscriptum. 26.1–4 (1995): 117–18. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. “To D. Mugur,” 14 July 1924. Manuscriptum. 26.1–4 (1995): 121–22. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor. Cursurile de mistică. Ed. Ioan I. Ică Jr. Sibiu: Deisis, 2010. Print.Google Scholar
Crainic, Nichifor, Seişanu, Romului, and Faur, Dimitrie T. Geografia Romăniei: Pentru Clasa III-a Primară. Bucharest: Editura “Naţionala Ciornei,” 1931. Print.Google Scholar
Cuza, A. C. “Presa jidovească şi studen&tdotb;ii universitari.” Neamul romănesc 5 Dec. 1908: 2995. Print.Google Scholar
Dagnino, Jorge, “Catholic Modernities in Fascist Italy: The Intellectuals of Azione Cattolica.“ Clerical Fascism in Interwar Europe. Ed. Feldman, Matthew and Turda, Marius. London: Routledge, 2008. 117–30.Google Scholar
Dima, Alexandru. “Problema mişcării ortodoxiste.” Datina 7/10 (1929): 137–50. Print.Google Scholar
Drace-Francis, Alex. The Making of Modern Romanian Culture: Literacy and the Development of National Identity. London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2006. Print.Google Scholar
Durandin, Catherine. “Orthdoxie et Roumanité: Le débat de l'entre deux guerres.” Rumanian Studies. 5 (1980–1986): 105–24. Print.Google Scholar
Enăceanu, Ghenadie. Creştinismul ìn Dacia şi creştinarea romănilor. Bucharest: Tipogragia Curţii, 1875. Print.Google Scholar
Epure, Gheorghe. “Ortodoxismul gìndirist.” Istoria filozofiei romăneşti. Ed. Ghişe, Dumitru and Gogoneaţă, Nicolae. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romănia, 1980. 676741. Print.Google Scholar
Falina, Maria. “Between ‘Clerical Fascism’ and Political Orthodoxy: Orthodox Christianity and Nationalism in Interwar Serbia.” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 8.2 (2007): 247–58. Print.Google Scholar
Gillet, Oliver. “Orthodoxie, nation et ethnicité en Roumanie au XXe siècle: un problème ecclésiologique et politique.” Ethnicity and Religion in Central and Eastern Europe. Eds. Cra&tdotb;ciun, Maria and Ghitta, Ovidiu. Cluj-Napocă: Cluj UP, 1995. 345–61. Print.Google Scholar
Griech-Polelle, Beth A.The Impact of the Spanish Civil War upon Roman Catholic Clergy in Nazi Germany.” Antisemitism, Christian Ambivalence, and the Holocaust. Ed. Spicer, Kevin P. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2007. 121–35. Print.Google Scholar
Gusti, Dimitrie. The Royal Foundations of Rumania. Bucharest: Fundaţia Culturală Regală “Principele Carol”, 1939. Print.Google Scholar
Gusti, Dimitrie. “Cuvant la congres general ale căminelor culturale, 1938.” Opere. Ed. Bădina, Ovidiu and Neamţu, Octavian. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romănia, 1970. 291–94. Print.Google Scholar
Hanebrink, Paul A. In Defense of Christian Hungary: Religion, Nationalism, and Antisemitism, 1890–1944. Ithaca N.Y.: Cornell UP, 2006. Print.Google Scholar
Hall, Christine, “Spiritual tradition and ecclesiology in the Romanian Orthodox historical and political context,International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church 11.2–3 (2011): 152–72.Google Scholar
Heinen, Armin. Legiunea “Arhanghelul Mihail”: Mişcare socială şi organizaţie politică. Trans. Cornelia and Delia Eşianu. Bucharest: Humanitas, 2006. Print.Google Scholar
Heitmann, Klaus. “Das “rumänische Phänomen”. Die Frage des nationalen Spezifikums in der Selbstbesinnung in der rumänischen Kultur seit 1900.” Südost-Forschungen. 24 (1970): 171236. Print.Google Scholar
Herf, Jeffrey. Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1984. Print.Google Scholar
Hitchins, Keith. Orthodoxy and Nationality: Andreiu Sţaguna and the Rumanians of Transylvania, 1846–1873. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1977. Print.Google Scholar
Hitchins, Keith. “Găndirea: Nationalism in a Spiritual Guise.” Studies on Romanian National Consciousness. Ed. Hitchins, Keith. Pelham, NY: Nagard, 1983. 231–58. Print.Google Scholar
Hitchins, Keith. Rumania 1866–1947. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994. Print.Google Scholar
Hitchins, Keith. The Romanians, 1774–1866. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996. Print.Google Scholar
Hitchins, Keith. “Orthodoxism: Polemics over Ethnicity and Religion in Interwar Romania.” National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe. Ed. Banac, Ivo and Verdery, Katherine. New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995. 135–56. Print.Google Scholar
Ică, loan I. Jr. “Nichifor Crainic şi redescoperirea misticii ìn Ortodoxie ìn prima jumătate a secolului XX,Cursurile de mistică. Ed. Ică, Ioan I. Jr. Sibiu: Deisis, 2010. 5112. Print.Google Scholar
Ionescu, Nae. “Tot despre Facultatea Chişinăului.” Cuvăntul 24 Sep. 1926: 12. Print.Google Scholar
Ionescu, Nae. “Pentru o teologie cu nespecialişti.” Predania 15 Feb. 1937: 34. Print.Google Scholar
Leustean, Lucian. “The Political Control of Orthodoxy in the Construction of the Romanian State, 1859–1918.” European History Quarterly. 37. 1 (2007): 6180.Google Scholar
Linehan, Thomas. “'On the Side of Christ’: Fascist Clerics in 1930s Britain.” Clerical Fascism in Interwar Europe. Eds. Feldman, Matthew and Turda, Marius. London: Routledge, 2008. 7589. Print.Google Scholar
Livezeanu, Irina. Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building, and Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930. London: Cornell UP, 1995. Print.Google Scholar
Livezeanu, Irina. “After the Great Union: Generational Tensions, Intellectuals, Modernism, and Ethnicity in Interwar Romania.” Nation and National Ideology: Past, Present and Prospects. Ed. Vianovski-Mihai, Irina. Bucharest: New Europe College, 2001: 110–27. Print.Google Scholar
Livezeanu, Irina. “Generational Politics and the Philosophy of Culture: Lucian Blaga between Tradition and Modernism.” Austrian History Yearbook. 33 (2002): 207–37. Print.Google Scholar
Maner, Hans-Christian. Multikonfessionalita&tdotb;t und neue Staatlichkeit: orthodoxe, griechischkatholische und rotmisch-katholische Kirche in Siebenbu&tdotb;rgen und Altruma&tdotb;nien zwischen den Weltkriegen (1918–1940). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2007. Print.Google Scholar
Manu, Peter and Bozdoghinä, Horia, Polemica Paulescu: Ştiin&tdotb;ă, politică, memorie. Bucharest: Cartea Veche, 2010. Print.Google Scholar
Marineasa, Viorel. Tradi&tdotb;ie supralicitată, modernitate diortosită: Publicistica lui Nichifor Crainic şi a lui Nae lonescu, la o nouă citire. Timişoara: U de Vest, 2004. Print.Google Scholar
Micu, Dumitru. “Găndirea” şi găndirismul. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1975. Print.Google Scholar
Mitu, Sorin. National Identity of Romanians in Transylvania. Trans. Sorana Corneanu. Budapest: Central European UP, 2001.Google Scholar
Mugur, Gh D, Crainic, Nichifor, and Voiculescu, Vasile. Căminul Cultural. Bucharest: Fundaţia Culturală “Principele Carol”, 1922. Print.Google Scholar
Muşeţeanu, Liliana. Bibliografie radiofonică romănească. 2 vols. Bucharest: Editura “Casa Radio”, 2000. Print.Google Scholar
Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas M. Nicolae Iorga: A Biography. Iaşi and Portland: Center for Romanian Studies, 1998. Print.Google Scholar
Negrescu, I.Universitatea Populară din Chişinău.” Universitatea Populara din Chişinău: Anuare 1922–1925. Ed. Negrescu, I. Chişinău: U Populară din Chişinău, 1925: 936. Print.Google Scholar
Oişteanu, Andrei. Inventing the Jew: Antisemitic Stereotypes in Romanian and Other Central-East European Cultures. Trans. Mirela Adăscălţei. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 2009. Print.Google Scholar
Opri&tdotb;escu, Mihail. Partidul Na&tdotb;ionalist Democrat condus de Nicolae Iorga (1910–1938). Bucharest: 2000. Print.Google Scholar
Ornea, Zigu. Sămănătorismul. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1971.Google Scholar
Ornea, Zigu. Poporanismul. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1972. Print.Google Scholar
Ornea, Zigu. Junimea şi Junimismul. Bucharest: Editura Eminescu, 1978. Print.Google Scholar
Ornea, Zigu. Tradiţionalism şi modernitate ìn deceniul al treilea. Bucharest: Editura Eminescu, 1980. Print.Google Scholar
Papahagi, Marian. ““The “National Essence” in Interwar Romanian Literary Life.” National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe. Eds. Banac, Ivo and Verdery, Katherine. New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995. 157–80. Print.Google Scholar
Parusi, Gheorghe. Cronologia Bucureştilor. Bucharest: Compania, 2005. Print.Google Scholar
Paulescu, Nicolae. Spitalul, Coranul, Talmudul, Cahalul, Francmasoneria. Filipeştii de Tărg, Prahova: Antet XX, 2001.Google Scholar
Păcurariu, Mircea. Istoria Bisericii Ortodoxe Romăne. Bucharest: Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romăne, 2006. Print.Google Scholar
Petrescu, Cezar. “Untitled.” Găndirea, 1.1 (1921): 19. Print.Google Scholar
Petrescu, Liviu. “Crainic, Nichifor.” Dicţionarul scriitorilor romăni. Eds. Zaciu, Mircea, Papahagi, Marian, and Sasu, Aurel. Bucharest: Editura Fundajiei Culturale Romăne, 1995. 696–98. Print.Google Scholar
Petreu, Marta. An Infamous Past: E. M. Cioran and the Rise of Fascism in Romania. Trans. Bogdan Aldea. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005. Print.Google Scholar
Popescu, Teodor. “Nichifor Crainic ìn teologia noastra.” Găndirea. 19.4 (1940): 277–82. Print.Google Scholar
Posse, N. Ìntălnirile cu Tolstoi. Trans. Nichifor Crainic and Ion Călugăru. Bucharest: Tipgrafia si legatoria G. Iliescu, 1923. Print.Google Scholar
Pöpping, Dagmar. Abendland: Christliche Akademiker und die Utopie der Antimoderne, 1900–1945. Berlin: Metropol, 2002. Print.Google Scholar
Protopopescu, Ion D. Pericolul Ovreesc. Craiova: Editura Ramuri, n.d. Print.Google Scholar
Puiu, Vissarion. Monăstirile din Basarabia. Chişinău: Tipografia de Editură Natională “Luceafărul”, 1919. Print.Google Scholar
Ralea, Mihail. “Rasputinism.” Viaţa romănească. 20.12 (1928): 332–41. Print.Google Scholar
Ralea, Mihail. “Iarăşi ortodoxismul.” Viaţa romănească. 21.7–8 (1929): 188–89. Print.Google Scholar
Rebreanu, Liviu. “Cine-i Nichifor Crainic.” Adevărul literar şi antiptic 5 Apr. 1931: 5. Print.Google Scholar
Rilke, Rainer Maria. Povestiri despre bunul Dumnezeu . Trans. Nichifor Crainic. Bucharest: Fundat&tdotb;ia Culturala? Principele Carol, c. 1927. Print.Google Scholar
Roberts, Joanne. “The City of Bucharest, 1918–1940.” Diss. U College London, 2009. Print.Google Scholar
Sărghie, Anca. Din istoria presei romăneşti. Sibiu: Techno Media, 2004. Print.Google Scholar
Schifirne&tdotb;, Constantin. Geneza modernă a ideii na&tdotb;ionale: Psihologie etnică şi identitate romănească. Bucharest: Albatros, 2001. Print.Google Scholar
Shekhovtsov, Anton. “By Cross and Sword: ‘Clerical Fascism’ in Interwar Western Ukraine.” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 8.2 (2007): 271–85. Print.Google Scholar
Solonari, Vladimir. Purifying the Nation: Population Exchange and Ethnic Cleansing in Nazi-Allied Romania. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP, 2010. Print.Google Scholar
Steigmann-Gall, Richard. The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. Print.Google Scholar
Tagore, Rabindranath. Sădhană: Calea Desăvărşirii. Trans. Nichifor Crainic. Bucharest: Editura Stress, 1922. Print.Google Scholar
Ţicu, Constantin I.Nationalism creştin.” Pastorul ortodox. 18.2 (1937): 293–96. Print.Google Scholar
Ursul, George R., “From Political Freedom to Religious Independence: The Romanian Orthodox Church, 1877 to 1925.” Romania Between East and West: Historical Essays in Memory of Constantin C. Giurescu, Eds. Fischer-Galati, Stephen, Florescu, Radu and Ursul, George. Boulder: East European Monographs, 1982. 217–44. Print.Google Scholar
Verdery, Katherine. “National Ideology and National Character in Interwar Romania.” National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe, Ed. Verdery, Katherine and Banac, Ivo. New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995. 103–34. Print.Google Scholar
Verhaeren, Émile. Belgia ìnsăngerată. Trans. Nichifor Crainic. Bucharest: Editura Facia, 1916. Print.Google Scholar
Vicovan, Ion. Ioan Irineu Mihălcescu: “Apostol al teologiei romăneşti.” 2 vols. Iaşi: Trinitas, 2006. Print.Google Scholar
Volovici, Léon. Nationalist Ideology and Anti-Semitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s. Oxford: Pergamon, 1991. Print.Google Scholar
Vrabie, Gheorghe. Găndirismul: Istoric, doctrină, realizări. Bucharest: Editura Cugetarea, 1940. Print.Google Scholar