Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T19:34:31.523Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Kenesary Kasymov Rebellion (1837–1847): A National-Liberation Movement or “a Protest of Restoration”?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Yuriy Malikov*
Affiliation:
History Department, University of California-Santa Barbara, U.S.A. [email protected]

Extract

The history of each nation has some key periods that have drawn the attention of generations of researchers. Historians consider the Great Revolution of France, the rise of Hitler in Germany, and the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia to be among the most important events, hence the events most worth studying, of these countries. Different interpretations of these events, which determined the fates of people for decades and even for centuries, cause heated debates among scholars.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © 2005 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1. M. K. Kozbaev, Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova (sbornik dokumentov) (Almaty, 1996), p. 27; Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance to Russian Colonization: Interpreting the Kenesary Kasymov Revolt, 1837–1847,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 3, 2002, p. 24; Martha Brill Olcott, The Kazakhs, 2nd edn (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), p. 64.Google Scholar

2. The idea that the parameters of modern Kazakh nationhood were essentially a Soviet creation has dominated historiography in the West since the publishing of Ronald Suny's path-breaking books at the end of the 1990s. See Shirin Akiner, The Formation of Kazakh Identity: From Tribe to Nation-State (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995) 34.Google Scholar

3. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 32.Google Scholar

4. E. S. Syzdykova, “Voprosy istorii Kazakhstana v trudakh ofitserov general'nogo shtaba Rossiiskoi Imperii,” Ph.D. dissertation, Eurasian University of Astana, 2002, p. 82.Google Scholar

5. For an example of one of such “pre-Russian” unrests see A. Etsel' and G. Vagner, Puteshestvie po Sibiri i prilegaiushchim k nei stranam Tsentral'noi Azii po opisaniiam T.U. Atkinsonom, A.T. Fon Middendorfom, G. Radtse i drugimi (St Petersburg, 1865) 289.Google Scholar

6. E. Bekmakhanov, Prisoedinenie Kazakhstana k Rossii (Moscow, Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR, 1957), p. 3.Google Scholar

7. S. D. Afendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (s drevneishikh vremen), Vol. 1 (Alma-Ata: Kazakhstanstoe Kraevoe Izdatel'stvo, 1935), p. 136.Google Scholar

9. Ibid., p. 167.Google Scholar

10. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody XX veka (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]).Google Scholar

11. Steven Sabol, Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12. A. Kuzembaiuly and E. Abil, Istoriia Respubliki Kazakhstan (Almaty, 2002), p. 127.Google Scholar

13. Kh. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva v podavlenii natsional'no-osvoboditel'nogo dvizheniia Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom sultanov Sarzhana i Kenesary,” Ph.D. dissertation, Eurasian University of Astana, 2000, p. 67.Google Scholar

14. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva”, p. 110.Google Scholar

15. Zh. Mazhitova, “Voennoe prisutstvie Rossii v Severo-Zapadnom Kazakhstane v XVII—nachale XIX vv.,” Ph.D. dissertation, Karaganda State University, 1997, p. 140.Google Scholar

16. S. Maduanov, “Vzaimootnosheniia Kazakhov s drugimi sosednimi narodami Tsentral'noi Azii v XVIII—nachale XX vekov,” Ph.D. dissertation, Almaty State University, 1997, p. 105.Google Scholar

17. Geoffrey Wheeler, “Russian Conquest and Colonization of Central Asia,” in Russian Imperialism from Ivan the Great to the Revolution ed. Taras Hunczak (Lanham MD: University Press of America, 2000), p. 266; N. G. Apollova, Khoziaistvennoe osvoenie priirtysh'ia v kontse XVI pervoi polovine XIX v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1976); M. O. Auezov, Istoriia Kazakhskoi SSR, Vol. 1 (Alma-Ata: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Kazakhstoi SSR, 1957); M. S. Mukanov, Etnicheskaia territoriia Kazakhov v XVIII—nachale XX vekov (Alma-Ata: Kazakhstan, 1991); S. Z. Zimanov, Obshchestvennyi stroi Kazakhov v pervoi polovine XIX v. (Alma-Ata: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR, 1958).Google Scholar

18. “Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskie i istoricheskie predposylki i progressivnye znacheniia prisoedineniia Kazakhstana l Rossii,” Mezhvuzovskii sbornik , (Alma-Ata: Kazakh Pedagogical Institute, 1982), p. 4.Google Scholar

19. Maduanov, “Vzaimootnosheniia Kazakhov,” p. 65.Google Scholar

20. M. P. Viatkin, Ocherki po istorii Kazakhskoi SSR (Leningrad, 1941), quoted in Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 44.Google Scholar

21. Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 8.Google Scholar

22. Ibid.Google Scholar

23. Olcott, The Kazakhs , p. 66.Google Scholar

24. Michael Rywkin, Russia in Central Asia (New York: Collier Books, 1963), pp. 1719.Google Scholar

25. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 24.Google Scholar

26. This phenomenon is aptly described in Bruce Grant, In the Soviet House of Culture. A Century of Perestoikas (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995) and Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors, Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1994).Google Scholar

27. Sultan Dzhan-Sultan Chuvakov, “Deistvuiushchee polozhenie ob upravlenii v stepnykh oblastiakh,” Otan Tarikhy , No. 4, 2002, p. 26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

28. A. I. Maksheev, Istoricheskii obzor Turkestana i nastupatel'nogo dvizheniia v nego russkikh (St. Petersburg, 1890), p. 104.Google Scholar

29. The term “Siberian Kirgiz” was used to distinguish the Kazakhs of the Middle Horde from the Younger Horde Kazakhs, who were called “Orenburg Kirgiz;” see Virginia Martin, “Barimta: Nomadic Custom, Imperial Crime,” in Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds, Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1997), p. 266.Google Scholar

30. Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii (hereafter PSZ), Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, pp. 49, 1518.Google Scholar

31. PSZ, Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, pp. 1920.Google Scholar

32. PSZ, Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, pp. 36, 48.Google Scholar

33. PSZ, Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, p. 25.Google Scholar

34. M. G. Masevich, Materialy po istorii politicheskogo stroia Kazakhstana (so vremeni prisoedineniia Kazakhstana k Rossii do Velikoi Oktiabr'skoi Sotsialisticheskoi Revoliutsii) (Alma-Ata: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR, 1960), p. 137.Google Scholar

35. Ibid., pp. 140141.Google Scholar

36. M. Zh. Abdirov, “Voenno-Kazach'ia kolonizatsiia Kazakhstana (konets XVI veka—nachalo XX veka). Opyt istoriko-evoliutsionnogo analiza,” Ph.D. dissertation (Almaty: Kazakhstan State University, 1997), p. 411.Google Scholar

37. Tsentral'nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Respubliki Kazakhstan (The Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan) (hereafter TsGA RK), f. 338, op. 1, d. 353.Google Scholar

38. Kozybaev, Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , p. 148.Google Scholar

39. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 4957, 1.11Google Scholar

40. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 71, ll. 4143.Google Scholar

41. A. G. Serebnrennikov, Sbornik materialov dlia istorii zavoevaniia Turkestanskogo kraia, Vol. 4 (Tashkent, 1914), p. 144, quoted in E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody XX veka (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 261.Google Scholar

42. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva,” p. 72; E. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost' Kenesary Kasymova,” Otan Tarikhy , No. 3, 2002, p. 48.Google Scholar

43. N. A. Sereda, “Bunt kirgizskogo sultana Kenesary Kasymova,” Vestnik Evropy , No. 8, 1870, p. 73.Google Scholar

44. E. Smirnov, Sultan Kenesary i Sadyk: Pererabotka rasskaza Akhmeta Kenesarina (Tashkent, 1883), p. 8; Murat Abdirov, Zavoevanie Kazakhstana tsarskoi Rossiei i bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda za nezavisimost' (iz istorii voenno-kazach'ei kolonizatsii kraia v kontse XVI—nachale XX vekov (Astana: Elorda, 2000), p. 171; Zh. Kasymbaev, Kenesary Khan (Almaty, 1993), pp. 5765; Zh. Artykbaev, Istoriia Kazakhstana (Almaty: Ghylym, 2004), p. 99; Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova (sbornik dokumentov) (Almaty, 1996), p. 16.Google Scholar

45. Olcott, The Kazakhs , (second edition) p. 66.Google Scholar

46. A. K. Akishev, Istoriia Kazakhstana s drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei (ocherk) (Almaty, 1993), p. 198Google Scholar

47. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 2920, ll. 40–40 ob.Google Scholar

48. E. Sydykov, “Khan Kene—Initiator of Revival of the Kazakh Statehood,” Otan Tarikhy , No. 3, 2002, p. 43.Google Scholar

49. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia v XVIII–XIX vekakh (1771–1867): Sbornik dokumentov i materialov (Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1964), p. 144.Google Scholar

50. M. G. Masevich, Materialy po istorii , p. 264.Google Scholar

51. N. Musabekova, “Vremennoe polozhenie 1867–1868 gg.: Problema teritorial'nykh otnoshenii,” Voprosy Istorii Kazakhstana. Issledovaniia molodykh uchenykh (Almaty), Vol. 3, 2002, p. 70.Google Scholar

52. A. Levshin estimates the number of Kazakhs as between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000 people at the beginning of the nineteenth century. See T. I. Sultanov, “Gosudarstvenno-politicheskoe razvitie v XVI—seredine XVIII v,” in M. Kh. Abuseitova ed., Istoriia Kazakhstana i Tsentral'noi Azii (Almaty, Daik Press, 2001), p. 281.Google Scholar

53. A. F. Riazanov, Sorok let bor'by za natsional'nuiu nezavisimost , pp. 200202, quoted in Abdirov, “Voenno-Kazach'ia kolonizatsiia,” p. 265.Google Scholar

54. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva,” p. 107.Google Scholar

55. Narody Rossii, Kirgizy (St Petersburg, 1880), pp. 1618.Google Scholar

56. Etsel', Puteshestvie po Sibiri , p. 450.Google Scholar

57. TsGA RK, f. 345, op. 1, d. 1381, ll. 12.Google Scholar

58. V. Grigor'ev, “Orenburgskie Kirgizy. Ikh chestnost' i umenie v torgovykh delakh,” Narodnyi Vestnik , 1864, p. 39.Google Scholar

59. According to Major General B. M. Bronevskii, the destruction caused by constant warfare between the Kazakh clans pushed them to take the oath of allegiance to the Russian state. See B. M. Bronevskii, “Zapiski B. M. Bronevskogo o kirgizakh,” Otechestvennye zapiski , No. 119, 1830, p. 179.Google Scholar

60. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 721, ll. 1–lob.Google Scholar

61. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 520, ll. 12.Google Scholar

62. N. I. Krasovskii, Oblast' Sibirskikh Kirgizov (St Petersburg, 1868), p. 60.Google Scholar

63. Narody Rossii , p. 3.Google Scholar

64. A. I. Levshin, Opisanie kirgiz-kazach'ikh ili kirgiz-kaisatskikh ord i stepei (St Petersburg, 1832), p. 30.Google Scholar

65. I. Kraft, Sbornik uzakonenii o kirgizakh stepnykh oblastei (Orenburg, 1898), p. 6.Google Scholar

66. L. Meier, Kirgizskaia step' Orenburgskogo vedomstva (St Petersburg, 1865), p. 3.Google Scholar

67. Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 12.Google Scholar

68. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia , pp. 299, 300.Google Scholar

69. S. Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (s drevneishikh vremen) (Alma-Ata, 1993), p. 114.Google Scholar

70. Olcott, The Kazakhs , p. 27.Google Scholar

71. Akishev, Istoriia Kazakhstana , pp. 216, 217.Google Scholar

72. E. B. Bekmakhanov, quoted by Olcott, The Kazakhs , p. 66.Google Scholar

73. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , p. 11; N. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana Kenesary Kasymova (1838–1847) (second edition) (Atyrau: Dialog, 1992 [1870]), p. 73; Zh. Kasymbaev, Poslednii pokhod Khana Kenesary i ego gibel' (Almaty: Ana tili, 2002), pp. 5758.Google Scholar

74. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan in 20–40 gody XX veka (Alma-Ata, 1947), p. 209.Google Scholar

75. E. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost' Kenesary Kasymova,” Otan Tarikhy , No. 3, 2002, p. 45.Google Scholar

76. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , 15.Google Scholar

77. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody , p. 283.Google Scholar

78. M. Mikhailov, “Kirgizy,” in Literaturnaia biblioteka (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 283.Google Scholar

79. Olcott, The Kazakhs , p. 65.Google Scholar

80. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia , p. 253.Google Scholar

81. Kasymbaev, Poslednii Pokhod Khana , p. 71.Google Scholar

82. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Omskoi Oblasti, f. 3, op.1, d. 299, ll. 4344.Google Scholar

83. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , p. 11.Google Scholar

84. Proshloe Kazakhstana v istochnikakh i materialakh (Alma-Ata and Moscow, 1936), p. 221; Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana, p. 168.Google Scholar

85. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , p. 11; Asfendiiarov gives similar numbers of Kenesary's tulenguts. According to his estimations, Kenesary had about 1,000 tulenguts to compare with his grandfather Ablai's 5,000 tulenguts. See Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (1993), p. 122.Google Scholar

86. TsGA RK, f. 374, op.1, d. 162, ll. 427–427 ob.Google Scholar

87. TsGA RK, f. 374, op.1, d. 627, ll. 3–6 ob.Google Scholar

88. TsGA RK, f. 338, op.1, d. 760, ll. 3334.Google Scholar

89. Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (1993), p. 122.Google Scholar

90. Etsel', Puteshestvie po Sibiri , p. 470.Google Scholar

91. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia , p. 303.Google Scholar

92. Ibid.Google Scholar

93. Olcott, The Kazakhs , p. 66.Google Scholar

94. Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (1993), p. 169.Google Scholar

95. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 4412. ll. 4–5 ob.Google Scholar

96. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 2009, ll. 172–173 ob.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

97. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 162, ll. 595–595 ob.Google Scholar

98. R. Soboleva, “Introduction,” in A. Kenesarin, Sultany Kenesary i Syzdyk (second edition) (Alma-Ata: Zhalyn, 1992), p. 8.Google Scholar

99. TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 4, op. 1, d. 4336, 1. 15 ob.Google Scholar

100. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana , p. 48.Google Scholar

101. Ibid., p. 49.Google Scholar

102. TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 338, op. 1, d. 3, ll. 196198.Google Scholar

103. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova (sbornik dokumentov) (Almaty, 1996), p. 223.Google Scholar

104. TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 4, op. 1, d. 385, ll. 108–111 ob.Google Scholar

105. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 4349, 1. 10; N. E. Bekmakhanova, Rossiia i Kazakhstan v osvoboditel'nom dvizhenii. Posledniaia chetvert' XVIII—pervaia polovina XIX veka (Moscow: Institut Rossiiskoi Istorii, 1996).Google Scholar

106. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 2328, ll. 170–171 ob.Google Scholar

107. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana , p. 105.Google Scholar

108. TsGA RK, f. 4, op.1, d. 2328, ll. 30–32 ob.Google Scholar

109. Kenesarin, Sultany Kenesary i Syzdyk , p. 19.Google Scholar

110. Kasymbaev, Poslednii pokhod Khana , pp. 5758.Google Scholar

111. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 409, ll. 6–7, 12, 14.Google Scholar

112. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 340, l. 1.Google Scholar

113. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 3994, ll. 45.Google Scholar

114. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 424, ll. 3–3 ob.Google Scholar

115. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Omskoi Oblasti, f. 67, op.1, d. 248, ll. 56 ob.–58.Google Scholar

116. Olcott, The Kazakhs , pp. 45, 65.Google Scholar

117. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 2232, ll. 312313.Google Scholar

118. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 26.Google Scholar

119. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , p. 19.Google Scholar

120. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 34.Google Scholar

121. Kasymbaev, Poslednii Pokhod , p. 171.Google Scholar

122. Ibid., p. 172.Google Scholar

123. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva,” p. 97.Google Scholar

124. Soboleva, “Introduction,” p. 9.Google Scholar

125. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana , (1992 [1870]), p. 163.Google Scholar

126. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost',” p. 48.Google Scholar

127. V. Z. Galiev, Dvizhushchie sily narodno-osvoboditel'noi bor'by pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova, Ablai—Kenesary (Almaty, 2001), p. 108.Google Scholar

128. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , p. 10; M. Koigeldiev, “Rebellion of Kenesary Kasymov in a Context of Anti-colonial Movement of the Peoples of Central Asia,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 3, 2002, p. 14.Google Scholar

129. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost',” p. 44.Google Scholar

130. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody , (second edition) (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 280.Google Scholar

131. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 6, ll. 198–199 ob.Google Scholar

132. Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier , pp. 13, 31.Google Scholar

133. A. Semenov, Sredniaia Aziia (Moscow, 1911), p. 21.Google Scholar

134. A. N. Sedel'nikov, “Istoricheskie sud'by Kirgizskogo kraia i kul'turnye ego uspekhi,” in V. P. Semenov, ed., “Rossiia: Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naia i dorozhnaia kniga dlia russkikh liudei,” Vol. 18, Kirgizskii krai (St Petersburg, 1903), p. 144. Aul—the migratory unit of the Kazakhs ruled by elders. Auls generally consisted of several extended families drawn from the same clan.Google Scholar

135. I. Andreev, Opisanie Srednei Ordy Kirgiz-Kaisakov (Almaty, 1998 [1789]), p. 32.Google Scholar

136. V. Grigor'ev, “The Russian Policy Regarding Central Asia. An Historical Sketch,” in Eugene Schuyler, Turkistan, Vol. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1877), p. 405.Google Scholar

137. S. D. Asfendiarov ed., Proshloe Kazakhstana v istochnikakh i materialakh (V vek do nashei ery—XVIII vek nashei ery) (Almaty (1997 [1935]), p. 229.Google Scholar

138. Krasovskii, Oblast' Sibirskikh Kirgizov , p. 70.Google Scholar

139. Asfendiarov. ed., Proshloe Kazakhstana (1997 [1935]), p. 229.Google Scholar

140. Sultan Dzhan-Sultan Chuvakov, “Deistvuiushchee Polozhenie ob upravlenii v stepnykh oblastiakh,” Otan Tarikhy , No. 4, 2002, p. 26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

141. I. I. Kraft, Sbornik uzakonenii o kirgizakh stepnykh oblastei (Orenburg, 1898), p. 21.Google Scholar

142. S. Bol'shoi, “Zapiski doktora Savvy Bol'shogo o prikliucheniiakh ego v plenu u kigizkaisakov v 1803 i 1804 godakh s zamechaniiami o kirgiz-kaisatskoi stepi,” Syn Otechestva, Part 80 (St Petersburg, 1822), p. 58.Google Scholar

143. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia , p. 145.Google Scholar

144. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody , XX veka (second edition), (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 283.Google Scholar

145. Ibid.Google Scholar

146. Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier , p. 30.Google Scholar

147. Elizabeth Bacon, Central Asians under Russian Rule (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1980), p. 37.Google Scholar

148. George Demko, The Russian Colonization of Kazakhstan, 1896—1916 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1969), p. 26.Google Scholar

149. Olcott, The Kazakhs , p. 14.Google Scholar

150. Ibid., p. 15Google Scholar

151. Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier , p. 31.Google Scholar

152. Ibid., p. 153Google Scholar

153. Muravin, Gladyshev, Poezdka iz Orska v Khivu i obratno, sovershennaia v 1740–1741 godakh poruchikom Gladyshevym i geodezistom Muravinym (St Petersburg, 1851), p. 8.Google Scholar

154. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba , p. 18.Google Scholar

155. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana , p. 73.Google Scholar

156. Artykbaev, Istoriia Kazakhstana , p. 99Google Scholar

157. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan in 20–40 gody , XX veka (second edition), (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 241.Google Scholar

158. V. I. Lebedev. ed., Materialy po istorii Kazakhskoi SSR (1785—1828) (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk SSSR, 1940), p. 7.Google Scholar

159. Asfendiarov, ed. Proshloe Kazakhstana v istochnikakh , p. 306.Google Scholar

160. Artykbaev, Istoriia Kazakhstana (Almaty, 2004), p. 99.Google Scholar

161. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody , XX veka (second edition), (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 283.Google Scholar

162. Masevich, Materialy po istorii , p. 265; A. Kuzembaiuly and E. Abil, Istoriia Respubliki Kazakhstan (Almaty, 2002), p. 118Google Scholar

163. Bacon, Central Asians , p. 98Google Scholar

164. N. Apollova, Khoziaistvennoe osvoenie Priirtysh'ia v kontse XVI—pervoi polovine XIX v . (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1976), p. 33Google Scholar

165. Masevich, Materialy po istorii , p. 265.Google Scholar

166. Asfendiarov ed., Proshloe Kazakhstana , p. 234.Google Scholar

167. T. M. Kul'teleev ed., Materialy po Kazakhskomu obychnomu pravu (Almaty, 1998), p. 6.Google Scholar

168. TsGA RK, f. 338, d. 325; M. G. Masevich, Materialy po istorii , p. 153.Google Scholar

169. TsGA RK, f. 338, d. 325.Google Scholar

170. Ibid.Google Scholar

171. Or, as it was formulated in the Siberian Committee's report, “not to cause different suspicions among the people of the steppe.” See TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 338, d. 196.Google Scholar

172. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 797, 1. 10.Google Scholar

173. The Decree of 1846 ordered Siberian Cossacks to settle in the steppe. In addition to them, 5,000 Ukrainian peasants were allowed to build houses and start farming on Kazakh lands. As a result, 13 settlements were soon established. By 1904 the number of Russian and Ukrainian peasants in the steppe exceeded 140,000. See G. E. Katanaev, Kirgizskii vopros v Sibirskom Kazach'em voiske (Omsk: Tipografiia Okruzhnogo Shtaba, 1904), p. 10.Google Scholar

174. A. Shemanskii, “Voennaia istoriia Russkogo dvizheniia v Sredniuiu Aziiu,” Sredniaia Aziia (September–October 1910), p. 121.Google Scholar

175. E. Valikhanov, Politicheskaia deiatel'nost' , p. 48; Akishev, Istoriia Kazakhstana, p. 203.Google Scholar

176. The previously independent Elder Horde accepted a Russian protectorate in the period between 1845 and 1847. See P. P. Semenov, Kirgiz-Kaisaki (St Petersburg, 1865).Google Scholar