Article contents
The Importance of Being Ethnic: Minorities in Post-Soviet States—The Case of Russians in Kazakstan
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 November 2018
Extract
Introduction
The fall of the Soviet Union prompted an outpouring of concern over borders, identity, and stability. Many students of the region predicted that the breakup would lead to violence and instability. Scholars of the Soviet region emphasized cultural pluralism—in particular ethnic and religious pluralism or the “national question”—as the ultimate lesson of the Gorbachev era. In other words, ignore ethnicity at your own peril. To this point, that has not been the case. There have been only a few areas where instability, ethnic strife, and violence have been rampant—the Transdniestr region, Tajikistan, and Chechnia in particular. Why has this been the case? The lack of ethnic violence and severe ethnic tensions in this diverse region should lead one to reconsider the role of ethnicity in politics.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © 1998 Association for the Study of Nationalities
References
Notes
1. Soviet scholars such as L. M. Drobizheva often see ethnicity as primordial and “total.” An example: “National self awareness of the individual is an awareness by the subject of the totality of his national (ethnic) ties and his relation to them.” Drobizheva, “National Self Awareness,” in Olcott, Martha Brill, ed., The Soviet Multi-National State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990).Google Scholar
2. For more on theories of ethnicity, see Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991); Brass, Paul R., Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1991); Gellner, Ernest, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983); Gross, Jo-Ann, ed., Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change (Durham: Duke University Press, 1992); Hobsbawm, E. J., Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Horowitz, Donald L., Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).Google Scholar
3. Gross, Jo-Ann, ed., Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1992), p. 14.Google Scholar
4. Identity by itself is not threatening. I can consider myself a Russian living in Kazakstan without being a threat to the stability or independence of the state. I can even be a politically active Russian in Kazakhstan—actively fighting for political, linguistic, and social rights for my ethnic group without threatening Kazak statehood. However, there are instances where such ethnic mobilization may threaten statehood or stability.Google Scholar
5. Brubaker, Rogers, “Aftermaths of Empire and the Unmixing of Peoples: Historical and Comparative Perspectives,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2, April 1995, p. 210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6. Kaiser, Robert J., “Ethnic Demography and Interstate Relations in Central Asia,” in Szporluk, Roman, ed., National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 255.Google Scholar
7. In this paper, we have room only for a brief synopsis, but for an excellent account of the collapse of the Hapsburg and Ottoman Empires as well as predictions about the Soviet case, see Brubaker, Rogers, “Aftermaths of Empire and Ethnic Unmixing,” Racial and Ethnic Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2, April 1995, pp. 193–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8. Brubaker, , “Aftermaths,” pp. 195–197.Google Scholar
9. Brubaker, , “Aftermaths,” pp. 199–202.Google Scholar
10. Brubaker, , “Aftermaths,” pp. 193–195.Google Scholar
11. Abdygaliyev, Berik, Panorama (Almaty; in Russian), 11 March 1995, p. 3, cited in FBIS-SOV-95–052, 17 March 1995, p. 76. These data are confirmed by an interview with Dr Maqash Tatimov, Kazak Academy of Sciences, by Steven Sabol on 15 December 1994.Google Scholar
12. Tatimov, Maqash, “Vlianie demograficheskikh i migratsionnikh protsiessov na vnytripoliticheskyu stabil'nost’ molodogo gosudarstva—Respublik Kazakhstan,” unpublished manuscript, December 1994.Google Scholar
13. Kaiser, , “Ethnic Demography and Interstate Relations in Central Asia,” p. 255.Google Scholar
14. Today over 1 million Kazaks still reside in China, in the Ili region of Xinjiang province, and roughly 100,000 continue to live in Mongolia.Google Scholar
15. An aul is a nomadic form of organization usually based on familial ties. Masanov, Nurbulat, Kochevaia tsivilizatisiia kazakhov (Almaty, 1995); Hudson, Alfred E., Kazakh Social Structure, (New Haven, 1938).Google Scholar
16. Winner, Thomas, The Oral Art and Literature of the Kazakhs of Russian Central Asia (Durham, 1958), p. 7.Google Scholar
17. Bekmakhnov, E. B., Vosstanie khana Kenesary (1837–1847) (Almaty: 1992); Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody XIX veka (Almaty: 1992). The second work was originally published in 1947 and the author was severely criticized for his less than flattering interpretation of Russian colonization.Google Scholar
18. The average horse, per annum, needed not less than 20 hectares of pasture land. Each sheep needed 5–7 hectares. Masanov, , Kochevaia tsivilizatisiia kazakhov. (Almaty, 1995), p. 65.Google Scholar
19. Atkinson, Thomas W. Oriental and Western Siberia: A Narrative of Seven Years of Explorations and Adventures in Siberia, Mongolia, the Kirghis Steppes, Chinese Tartary, and Part of Central Asia (New York: 1858), pp. 220–245. The author, who traveled throughout the Steppe region in the 1850s, gives numerous accounts of impoverished Kazaks he encountered.Google Scholar
20. Prior to 1822, immigration consisted primarily of Cossacks, in small numbers, settling for military purposes.Google Scholar
21. Siberia, in this context, includes northern Kazakstan.Google Scholar
22. Olcott, Martha Brill, The Kazakhs (Stanford: Hoover University Press, 1987), p. 123.Google Scholar
23. Conquest, Robert, Harvest of Sorrow (New York, Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 190.Google Scholar
24. Abylkhozhin, Zh. B., Kozybaev, M. K. and Tatimov, M. B., “Kazakhstanskaia tragedia,” Voprosi istorii, Vol. 7, July 1989, p. 66. The authors compare the decline of the Kazaks noted above with the growth of neighboring titular nationalities. In the same period Uzbeks grew by 22%, Tajiks by 29%, Kirghiz by 16%, and Karakalpak by 25%.Google Scholar
25. Lewis, Robert A., Rowland, Richard and Clem, Ralph S., Nationality and Population Change in Russia and the USSR: An Evaluation of Census Data, 1897–1970 (New York: Praeger, 1976), pp. 362–363.Google Scholar
26. Lewis, et al. Nationality and Population Change, pp. 149, 363.Google Scholar
27. Novoye pokolenie, 26 May 1995, p. 7, cited in FBIS-SOV-95–108, 6 June 1995, p. 76.Google Scholar
28. Ibid., p. 77.Google Scholar
29. Programma III Naychnie chtenia. NAN, RK, Tsentr vostokovedenie, Almaty, 30 May 1995.Google Scholar
30. Kolsto, Pal, “The New Russian Diasporo,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 30, May 1993, p. 202. When these questions were asked of other Central Asian states, 80% of Russians in Uzbekistan were likely (very or fairly) to foresee a mass emigration in the near future, 79% in Tajikistan, and 71% in Kirghizstan, whereas only 24% foresaw such an outcome in Kazakhstan.Google Scholar
31. Statkom SNG, Statisticheskhii biulleten, No. 1, October 1992, p. 129, cited in Kaiser, op. cit., p. 246.Google Scholar
32. Abdygaliyev, Berik, Novoye Pokolenie (in Russian), 26 May 1995, p. 7, cited in FBIS-SOV-95–108, 6 June 1995.Google Scholar
33. Kolstoe, Paul, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), p. 246.Google Scholar
34. Abdygaliyev, Berik, Novoye Pokolenie (in Russian), 26 May 1995, p. 7, cited in FBIS-SOV-95–108, 6 June 1995.Google Scholar
35. There is currently a new draft constitution in 1995.Google Scholar
36. First Foundation of the Constitutional System, preamble, 28 January 1993.Google Scholar
37. The new draft constitution, passed by referendum in August 1995, elevates Russian to “official” language and designates Kazak as the “state” language. Still a hierarchy but the gap is perceived to have lessened.Google Scholar
38. Law on National Independence, 16 December 1991, Chapter 2, Article 6.Google Scholar
39. Ibid., Article 7.Google Scholar
40. Popov, Arkadii, ed., Nationalities and Politics in Post Soviet World: 1993 (Moscow: Institute of Ethnography and Anthropology, RAN and IREX, 1994), p. 45.Google Scholar
41. speech, Nazarbaev, Izvestia, 12 April 1994, p. 3, cited in FBIS-SOV-94–071, 13 April 1994, p. 59.Google Scholar
42. Abdygaliyev, Berik, Panorama (Almaty; in Russian), 11 March 1995, p. 3, cited in FBIS-SOV-95–052, 17 March 1995, p. 75.Google Scholar
43. Olcott, , The Kazakhs, p. 124.Google Scholar
44. The referendum asked, “Do you agree to an extension of Nursultan Nazarbaev's term of office to December 1, 2000?” The potential responses were “yes” and “no.”Google Scholar
45. Sevodnya, 4 May 1995, p. 5, cited in CDSP, Vol. 47, No. 18, 1995, p. 19.Google Scholar
46. Prism, 7 July 1995.Google Scholar
47. The 1996 Russian draft budget allocated 120 billion rubles (U.S.$27 million) to the Fund for Russians Living Abroad, which will provide funding for at least 30 organizations in all of the FSU. OMRI Daily Report, 4 August 1995.Google Scholar
48. Monitor, Vol. 1, No. 47, 7 July 1995.Google Scholar
49. Abdygaliyev, Berik, Panorama (Almaty; in Russian), 11 March 1995, p. 3, cited in FBIS-SOV-95–052, 17 March 1995, p. 76.Google Scholar
- 12
- Cited by