1. Motyl, Alexander J., “Why Empires Reemerge: Imperial Collapse and Imperial Revival in Comparative Perspective,” Comparative Politics, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1999, pp. 127–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2. Doyle, Michael, Empires (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 45.Google Scholar

3. Motyl, Alexander J., Revolutions, Nations, Empires. Conceptual Limits and Theoretical Possibilities (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), pp. 117–130.Google Scholar

4. The Russian SFSR obtained republican institutions only in 1990 with the rise of Russian republican leader and future President Borys Yeltsin.Google Scholar

5. Kuzio, Taras, Ukraine. State and Nation Building (New York: Routledge, 1998), pp. 18–21, 178–179,231,235.Google Scholar

6. Birch, Anthony H., “Minority Nationalist Movements and Theories of Political Integration,” World Politics, Vol. 30, No. 3, 1978, pp. 341–344.Google Scholar

7. Hutchinson, John, “Archaeology and the Irish Discovery,” Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1991, pp. 505–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8. On this question see Brown, Terrence, Ireland. A Social and Cultural History, 1922–1985 (London: Fontana, 1981), pp. 47, 53, 62–63, 79, 84, 92–93, 98, 107; Victor Kiernan, “The British Isles: Celts and Saxons,” in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter, eds, The National Question in Historical Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 1–34; and F. S. L. Lyons, Culture and Anarchy in Ireland, 1890–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 8–9, 16, 22, 32, 42, 48, 57–84.Google Scholar

9. See Petheridge-Hernandez, Patricia and Raby, R. Latiner, “Twentieth-Century Transformations in Catalonia and the Ukraine: Ethnic Implications in Education,” Comparative Education Review, Vol. 37, No. 1, 1993, pp. 31–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10. On this see the comparison between the ethno-cultural Irish and civic Finnish nationalism in Kissane, Bill, “Nineteenth-Century Nationalism in Finland and Ireland: A Comparative Analysis,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2000, pp. 25–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11. See Frayling, Canon Nicholas, “An English Repentance,” The Guardian, 11 March 2000.Google Scholar

12. See Kuzio, Taras, “Identity and Nation Building in Ukraine. Defining the ‘Other',” Ethnicities, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2001, pp. 343–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

13. Said, Edward, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994), p. 266.Google Scholar

14. Paxman, Jeremy, The English. A Portrait (London: Penguin, 1999), p. 45. See also Hickman, Mary J., “Reconstructing, Deconstructing ‘Race': British Political Discourses about the Irish,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1998, pp. 288–307.Google Scholar

15. Velychenko, Stephen, “Empire Loyalism and Minority Nationalism in Great Britain and Russia, 1707–1914: Institutions, Law, and Nationality in Scotland and Ukraine,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 39, No. 3, 1997, pp. 413–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

16. See Kuzio, Taras, “Geopolitical Pluralism in the CIS: The Emergence of GUUAM,” European Security, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000, pp. 81–114; Taras Kuzio, “Promoting Geopolitical Pluralism in the CIS. GUUAM and Western Foreign Policy,” Problems of Post-Communism, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2000, pp. 25–35.Google Scholar

17. Tillet, L. R., “Soviet Second Thoughts on Tsarist Colonialism,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 42, No. 2, 1964, p. 310. See also Tillet, L. R., “Nationalism and History,” Problems of Communism, Vol. 16, No. 5, 1967, pp. 36–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18. Velychenko, Stephen, “The Origins of the Official Soviet Interpretation of Eastern Slavic History. A Case Study of Policy Formulation,” Forschungen Zur Osteuropaischen Geschichte, Vol. 46, 1992, p. 238.Google Scholar

19. Tillet, L. R., The Great Friendship. Soviet Historians on the Non-Russian Nationalities (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), p. 4. See also Mazour, Anatole G., Modern Russian Historiography (London: Greenwood Press, 1975).Google Scholar

20. Velychenko, Stephen, “The Official Soviet View of Ukrainian History,” Journal of Ukrainian Studies, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1985, p. 84.Google Scholar

21. In a 1993 poll of ethnic Russians in the Russian Federation three quarters believed that Ukrainians were not a separate people and therefore should not have an independent state. See Goble, Paul A., “The Ukrainian Security Trap,” The Ukrainian Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 3, 1994, p. 230.Google Scholar

22. Velychenko, Stephen, “National History and the ‘History of the USSR': The Persistence and Impact of Categories,” in Schwartz, Donald V. and Panosian, Razmik, eds, Nationalism and History. The Politics of Nation-Building in Post-Soviet Armenia, Azerbaidzhan and Georgia (Toronto: University of Toronto, Centre for Russian and East European Studies, 1994), p. 28.Google Scholar

23. Friedman, Jonathan, “Myth, History and Political Identity,” Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1992, p. 207.Google Scholar

24. Friedman, Jonathan, “The Past in the Future: History and the Politics of Identity,” American Anthropologist, Vol. 94, No. 4, 1992, p. 837.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

25. Miller, David, On Nationality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).Google Scholar

26. Armstrong, John A., “Nations Before Nationalism,” in Hutchinson, John and Smith, Anthony D., eds, Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 145.Google Scholar

27. Smith, Anthony D., “Ethnic Myths and Ethnic Revivals,” Journal of European Sociology, Vol. 25, 1984, p. 288. Myths are divided by Smith into six component parts—myths of origin, myths of migration and/or liberation, myths of descent, myths of the heroic age, myths of communal decline and myths of rebirth and reawakening. The entire issue of Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1991 is devoted to “Archaeology and Nationalism.”Google Scholar

28. Friedman, , “The Past in the Future,” p. 801.Google Scholar

29. Kuzio, , “Identity and Nation Building in Ukraine.”Google Scholar

30. Friedman, , “The Past in the Future,” p. 854. See also Parkins, Helen, “Archeology and Nationalism: Excavating the Foundations of Identity,” Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1997, pp. 451–458; and Kohl, Philip L., “Nationalism and Archeology: On the Reconstruction of the Remote Past,” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 27, 1998, pp. 223–246.Google Scholar

31. Kymlicka, Will, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), p. 189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

32. Emerson, Rupert, From Empire to Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), pp. 381–382.Google Scholar

33. Sandler, Shmuel, “Ethnonationalism and the Foreign Policy of Nation-States,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1995, p. 258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

34. Bhabha, Homi K., The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 70.Google Scholar

35. Janmaat, Jan G., Nation-Building in Post-Soviet Ukraine. Educational Policy and the Response of the Russian-Speaking Population (Amsterdam: Netherlands Geographical Studies, 2000); and Kolsto, Pal, Political Construction Sites. Nation-Building and the Post-Soviet States (Boulder: Westview, 2000). See my review article of both books in Journal of Ukrainian Studies, Vol. 25, Nos 1–2, 2000.Google Scholar

36. Chatterjee, Partha, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1986), p. 37.Google Scholar

37. Fanon, Franz, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1963), pp. 210–211.Google Scholar

38. Juska, Arunas, “Ethno-political Transformation in the States of the Former USSR,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1999, pp. 524–553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

39. Kolsto, Pal, “Nation-Building in the Former Soviet Union,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1996, pp. 118–132.Google Scholar

40. Crawford, Beverley and Liphart, Arend, “Enduring Political and Economic Change in Post-Communist Eastern Europe: Old Legacies, New Institutions, Hegemons, Norms and International Pressures,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 28, No. 2, 1995, p. 189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

41. Rubin, Barnett, “Conclusion: Managing Normal Instability,” in Rubin, Barnett and Snyder, Jack, eds, Post-Soviet Political Order. Conflict and State Building (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

42. Snyder, Jack, “Introduction: Reconstructing Politics Amidst the Wreckage of Empire,” in Ibid., p. 8.Google Scholar

43. Beissinger, Mark, “Demise of an Empire-State: Identity, Legitimacy, and the Deconstruction of Soviet Politics,” in Young, Crawford, ed., The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism. The Nation-State at Bay? (Madison: The University of Wisconsin, 1993), p. 110.Google Scholar

44. Beissinger, Mark, “The Persisting Ambiguity of Empire,” Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1995, p. 157.Google Scholar

45. Ibid, p. 173.Google Scholar

46. Ibid. Google Scholar

47. See Schopflin, George, “National Identity in the Soviet Union and East Central Europe,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1991, pp. 3–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

48. Shils, Edward, “Nation, Nationality, Nationalism and Civil Society,” Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1995, p. 100; and Eriksen, Thomas H., Ethnicity and Nationalism. Anthropological Perspectives (London: Pluto Press, 1993), p. 69.Google Scholar

49. Connor, Walker, “Beyond Reason: The Nature of the Ethnonational Bond,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1993, pp. 376–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

50. Calhoun, Craig, “Nationalism and Ethnicity,” Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 19, 1993, pp. 225–226. See also Alonso, Ana M., “The Politics of Space, Time and Substance: State Formation, Nationalism and Ethnicity,” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 23, 1994, p. 387.Google Scholar

51. Emerson, , From Empire to Nation, p. 150.Google Scholar

52. Skak, Mette, From Empire to Anarchy. Postcommunist Foreign Policy and International Relations (London: Hurst, 1996), pp. 18, 21. See also Weiner, Myron, “Political Integration and Political Development,” Annals of the American Academy of Politics and Social Science, Vol. 358, 1965, pp. 52–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

53. Emerson, , From Empire to Nation, p. 380.Google Scholar

54. Smolicz, Jerzy J., “Tradition, Core Values and Intercultural Development in Plural Societies,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 11, No. 4, 1988, p. 394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

55. See Eke, Stephen and Kuzio, Taras, “The Socio-Political Roots of Authoritarian Populism in Belarus,” Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 52, No. 3, 2000, pp. 523–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

56. Ibid. Google Scholar

57. Carr, E. H., What is History? (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 90.Google Scholar

58. Literaturna Ukraiina, 6 October 1988.Google Scholar

59. Kul'tura i Zhyttia, 7 February and 13 March 1988.Google Scholar

60. Pravda Ukrainy, 9 June and 31 July 1987.Google Scholar

61. Radianska Ukraiina, 3 March; and Kul'tura i Zhyttia, 13 March 1988.Google Scholar

62. See Kuzio, Taras, Ukraine. Perestroika to Independence (London: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 94–95 and 101–104.Google Scholar

63. Kolsto, , Political Construction Sites, p. 35. See also Kuzio, Taras, “Historiography and National Identity Among the Eastern Slavs: Towards a New Framework,” National Identities, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2001, pp. 109–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

64. Extracted from Kuchma's speech in the west Ukrainian city of L'viv on the eightieth anniversary of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR) of 1918 (Uriadovyi Kurier, 3 November 1998).Google Scholar

65. Wanner, Catherine, Burden of Dreams: History and Identity in Post-Soviet Ukraine. Post-Communist Cultural Studies (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), p. xxiv.Google Scholar

66. Ibid, p. 103.Google Scholar

67. Kuzio, Taras, “Ukrainians in Search of Their Identity,” RFE/RL Newsline, Vol. 4, No. 193, 5 October 2000.Google Scholar

68. See Kuzio, Taras, “Borders, Symbolism and Nation-State Building: Ukraine and Russia,” Geopolitics and International Boundaries, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1997, pp. 36–56; and Kuzio, Taras, “Russia Continues to Hold Up Border Demarcation with Ukraine,” RFE/RL Newsline, 30 October 2001.Google Scholar

69. See chapter 9, “History, Myths and Symbols” in Kuzio, , Ukraine. State and Nation Building, pp. 198–229.Google Scholar

70. Quoted from L. Kuchma's Preface to Mykhailo Hrushevs'kyi (Kyiv: Ukraiina, 1996).Google Scholar

71. Popson, Nancy, “History Textbooks in Ukraine: Introducing Children to the ‘Ukrainian Nation',” paper prepared for the annual convention of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, New York, 13–15 April 2000, p. 8. Published as “The Ukrainian History Textbook: Introducing Children to the ‘Ukrainian Nation',” Nationalities Papers, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2001, pp. 325–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

72. See Stepanenko, Victor, The Construction of Identity and School Policy in Ukraine (Nova Science, 1999); and Janmaat, Jan G., “Identity Construction and Education: The History of Ukraine in Soviet and Post-Soviet Schoolbooks,” in Taras Kuzio and Paul D'Anieri, eds, Nation Building and National Security in Ukraine (Westport: Praeger, 2002).Google Scholar

73. Jilge, Wilfried, “Staatssymbolik und Nationale Identitat in der Postkommunistischen Ukraine,” Ethnos-Nation, Vol. 6, Nos 1–2, 1998, pp. 85–113.Google Scholar

74. For example, see Bich, Pavel, “Ruskaia kul'tura, belaruski kharakhtar i ekanomika,” Litaratura i mastatsva, 19 February 1993.Google Scholar

75. Sanford, George, “Nation, State and Independence in Belarus,” Contemporary Politics, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1997, p. 230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

76. Lindner, Rainer, “Besieged Past: National and Court Historians in Lukashenka's Belarus,” paper delivered to the Annual Convention of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, Columbia University, 16 April 1999.Google Scholar

77. Bic, Michas, “On the National Conception of History and Historical Education in the Republic of Belarus,” Belarusian Historical Journal, March 1993, p. 23.Google Scholar

78. Mihalisko, Kathleen J., “Belarus: Retreat to Authoritarianism,” in Dawisha, Karen and Parrott, Bruce, eds, Democratic Change and Authoritarian Reaction in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 246.Google Scholar

79. Zvyazda, 18 August 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

80. See Kuzio, Taras and Nordberg, Marc, “Nation and State Building, Historical Legacies and National Identities in Belarus and Ukraine: A Comparative Analysis,” Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, Vol. 26, Nos 1–2, 1999, pp. 69–90.Google Scholar

81. IFEX Action Alert, 15 July 1999.Google Scholar

82. Zvyazda, 18 August 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

83. RFE/RL Newsline, 25 February 1999.Google Scholar

84. Burant, Stephen R., “Belarus and the ‘Belarusian Irrendenta’ in Lithuania,” Nationalities Papers, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1997, p. 654.Google Scholar

85. As Marples, David writes, “Contemporary Belarusians tend to look to the Soviet past with nostalgia.” See his Belarus. A Denationalised Nation (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1999), p. 23.Google Scholar

86. Batt, Judy, “Federalism Versus Nationalism in Post-Communist State Building: The Case of Moldova,” Regional and Federal Studies, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1997, p. 25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

87. Ibid., p. 29.Google Scholar

88. Infotag, 11 February 1998.Google Scholar

89. King, Charles, “Moldovan Identity and the Politics of Pan-Romanianism,” Slavic Review, Vol. 53, No. 2, 1994, p. 368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

90. Ibid., p. 357.Google Scholar

91. Moskovskiy Komsomolets, 29 January 1998.Google Scholar

92. King, , “Moldovan Identity and the Politics of Pan-Romanianism,” p. 368.Google Scholar

93. See “The Central Asian States as Nationalizing States,” in Smith, Graham, Law, Vivien, Wilson, A., Bohr, Annette and Allworth, Edward, Nation-building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands. The Politics of National Identities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 139–166.Google Scholar

94. See Akiner, Shirin, “Melting Pot, Salad-Bowl or Cauldron? Manipulation and Mobilization of Ethnic, and Religious Identities in Central Asia,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1997, pp. 362–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

95. See Boudreaux, Richard, “5 Nations in Search of Identity,” Los Angeles Times, 25 December 1996.Google Scholar

96. Delovaya nedelya, 11 June 1998.Google Scholar

97. See Kolsto, Pal, “Anticipating Demographic Superiority: Kazakh Thinking on Integration and Nation Building,” Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 50, No. 1, 1998, pp. 51–69; Bremmer, Ian, “Nazarbaev and the North: State Building and Ethnic Relations in Kazakhstan,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1994, pp. 619–635; and Bhavina Dave, “National Revival in Kazakhstan: Language Shift and Identity Change,” Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 1, 1996, pp. 51–72.Google Scholar

98. See Kuzio, Taras, “Nationalist Riots in Kazakhstan,” Central Asian Survey, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1988, pp. 79–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

99. Michnik, Adam, “Speaking with the Kazakh President,” Transitions, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1997, p. 29.Google Scholar

100. See Kuzio, Taras, “Nationalising States or Nation Building: A Review of the Theoretical Literature and Empirical Evidence,” Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2001, pp. 135–154; and Kuzio, Taras, “The Myth of the Civic State: A Critical Survey of Hans Kohn's Framework for Understanding Nationalism,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 25, No. 1,2002, pp. 20–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar