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Ethnicity as Social Rank: Governance, Law, and Empire in Muscovite Russia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Extract

Most European early-modern states transitioned from composite monarchies into centralized ones. Essentially, composite monarchies were “more than one country under the sovereignty of one ruler.” As Moscow expanded and acquired the surrounding principalities either by inheritance or force, its grand princes enacted a series of legal and administrative reforms to dissolve the differences among its territories and create a centralized monarchy. These political reforms began under Ivan III, who instituted a standardization of Muscovite legal practice and formalized a defined system of social precedence, mestnichestvo, which accorded high rank to his newly acquired provincial elites within the Muscovite social system. Change could not happen overnight, and further legal reforms by Ivan IV, in addition to new religious reforms to eradicate differences of practice among his subjects, centralized the Grand Prince's political and religious authority.

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Copyright © 2006 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

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References

Notes

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13. Nurmamet Nurkeev was awarded hereditary land in addition to his pomest'e in acknowledgment of his loyal service following his father's. Ermolaev and Mustafina, Dokumenty po istorii Kazanskogo kraia, #31, 13 April 1622, pp. 12–14. Google Scholar

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24. Begishev was identified as a Chuvash in the earliest documents, though later records identify his family as “service Tatars.” However, it was common in the seventeenth century for Muscovite sources to label any Muslim as “Tatar.” Furthermore, possessing a Muslim village indicated that the Begishevs were Muslim. Stepanov Mel'nikov, ed., Akty istoricheskie i iuridicheskie i drevniia tsarskiia gramoty Kazanskoi i drugikh sosedstvennykh gubernii (Kazan': Knigoprodavets Ivan Dubrovin, 1859), #4, 26 June 19, pp. 89; #6, 1621, pp. 11–12; #7, 9 July 1621, pp. 13–14.Google Scholar

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26. Grekov, B. D. and Lebedev, V. I., eds, Dokumenty i materialy po istorii mordovskoi ASSR, Vol. 1 (Saransk: Mordovskoi nauchno-issledovatel'skii institut, 1940), #42, 1618–1619, pp. 235248.Google Scholar

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32. By 1621, Sviiazhsk's Bogoroditsii Monastery possessed at least two Tatar villages, Khoziasheva and Isakov. Ermolaev and Mustafina, Dokumenty po istorii Kazanskogo kraia, #38, pp. 8492. In fact, E. L. Dubman's study of monastic landholding in Simbirsk and Samara provinces suggests that all land granted to monasteries in those regions was settled only with Tatars and Mordvins peasants, E. L. Dubman, Khoziaistvennoe osvoenie srednego Povolzh'ia v XVII veke: Po materialam tserkovno-monastyrskikh vladenii (Kuibyshev: Kuibyshevskie knizhnoi izdatel'stvo, 1991).Google Scholar

33. The monasteries were Kazan's Troitse-Sergeevskii and Zilantov Uspenskii, and Sviiazhsk's Bogoroditsii. Information taken from I. Pokrovskii, “K istorii Kazanskikh monastyrei do 1764 goda,Izvestiia obshchestva arkheologii, istorii i etnografii pri Imperatorskom Kazanskom universitete, Vol. 18, 1902, pp. 1622. Pokrovskii's information is from the census of 1646 in Kazan' province. Similar data do not exist for most of the region's monasteries, because of the inconsistent information kept in the census records.Google Scholar

34. For a discussion of monastic privileges in the sixteenth century, see Veselovskii, S. V., “Monastyrskoe zemlevladenie v moskovskoi rusi vo vtoroi polovine XVI v.,Istoricheskie zapiski, Vol. 10, 1941, pp. 95116.Google Scholar

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38. It is likely that Onanin hoped for an adjustment in the yearly tax collection to reflect the lost labor, but his letter to the monastery just referred to his loyalty to the monks of the monastery. RGADA, f. 281, op. 1, d. 293, 23 February 1648.Google Scholar

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41. The response from the tsar's government was to return the petition without answering their plea. RGADA, f. 281, op. 1, d. 303, 30 March 1679.Google Scholar

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53. RGADA, f. 16, op. 1, d. 709, ll. 10.Google Scholar

54. This conclusion agrees with George Weickhardt's recent argument that the Ulozhenie “was essentially a codification and publication of the Rule Books of the Chancelleries,” connecting the origins of the Ulozhenie with administrative practice. George G. Weickhardt, “Early Russian Law and Byzantine Law,Russian History/Histoire Russe, Vol. 32, 2005, p. 15.Google Scholar

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56. RGADA, f. 281, op. 1, d. 277, 11. 9–11.5, 5 January 1646 and 1. 6, 2 August 1686. Frequently petitions are only revealed through responses to early requests, such as a land grant to support Tatar and Mordvin servitors in Saransk, in a favorable response to their earlier petition. RGADA, f. 1156, op. 1, d. 9, ll. 7–9, 2 November 1682.Google Scholar

57. Non-Russians in this case were “Tatars and other high non-Russians” (ili Tatarovia ili inye vsiakie inozemtsy). Ulozhenie, XIV: 3, p. 9798.Google Scholar

58. Ulozhenie, X: 161, p.56.Google Scholar

59. Ulozhenie, XVI: 41, p. 111.Google Scholar

60. Ulozhenie, XVI: 43, p. 112. This law does signify a major change from earlier years, when land transactions between Russians and those groups were not uncommon. For example, a charter from 26 January 1632 records a land exchange between a Tatar and a Russian, the Tatar receiving land in the countryside in exchange for his house in the city of Arzamas; another from 27 February 1633 records a land transaction between a Russian and a Mordvin, the Mordvin receiving service lands in the countryside and the Russian receiving the rights to space in the market at the Troitsii-Sergeiv Monastery in Arzamas. RGADA, f. 281, d. 267; RGADA, f. 281, d. 276, respectively.Google Scholar

61. Ulozhenie, XVI: 43, p. 112.Google Scholar

62. Ulozhenie, XVI: 44, p. 112.Google Scholar

63. Ulozhenie, XVI: 45, p. 112. While many Tatar servitors did receive notices for failure to provide service, this was not an uncommon phenomenon in Russia. Vasilii Elatin was reminded by the Prikaz Kazanskogo dvortsa that he owed them both taxes and service that he had failed to provide the previous year. RGADA, f. 1209, op. 78, d. 2753, 16 April 1654. The Kazanskii dvorets reminded Savin Fedorov syn Aukin and Petr Painravevich Nechaev in 1688 to fulfill their duties in Saransk uezd. RGADA, f. 1209, Pomestnyi Prikaz, op. 78, d. 2749; Aukin's is l. 1, Nechaev's is l. 2. The Pomestnyi Prikaz reminded Boris Skaskev in Saransk on 20 May 1694 of his failure to fulfill his obligations. RGADA, f. 1209, op. 78, d. 2750.Google Scholar

64. Ulozhenie, XVI: 45, p. 112.Google Scholar

65. Eventually Russian military servitors on the frontier also were given a residency requirement in order to shore up Russia's defenses. A d'iak of Atemar, Petr Samoilov, accepted pomest'e in nearby Saransk uezd on 30 May 1677. Samoilov remained in town rather than settle on his land, leaving the land unused. Moscow sent him a rather sternly worded gramota in 1679, commanding him to travel to his land in Saransk and provide the service for which it had been granted. RGADA, f. 1455, op. 2, d. 6497, 13 September 1679.Google Scholar

66. Ulozhenie, I: 1, p. 3.Google Scholar

67. Zbigniew Wojcik, “Russian Endeavors for the Polish Crown in the Seventeenth Century,Slavic Review, Vol. 41, 1982, pp. 5972.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

68. RGADA, f. 210, Razriadnyi prikaz, op. 21, d. 228, ll. 1–2ob., no earlier than 1669.Google Scholar

69. RGADA, f. 16, op. l, d. 709, l. 37, 22 March 1677, and l. 117, 21 July 1686.Google Scholar

70. Here I am not suggesting there was no attempt to “Russify”, merely that the final result of achieving “Russian” status was impossible. For an excellent description of early-modern Russification, see Michael Khodarkovsky, “Four Degrees of Separation: Constructing Non-Christian Identities in Muscovy,” in Ann Kleimola and Gail Lenhoff, eds, Culture and Identity in Muscovy, 1359–1584 (Moscow: ITZ-Garant, 1997), pp. 248266.Google Scholar

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73. The archimandrite was from Sviiazhsk's Bogoroditsii Monastery, Narodnoe antitserkovnoe dvizhenie v Rossii XVII veka: Dokumenty Prikaza tainykh del o raskol'nikakh, 1665–1667 gg. (Moscow: Akademiia nauk SSSR, 1986), pp. 61–62, 120–121, 143146. Aleksandr Vasil'ev‘s family was burned by their fellow villagers in Arzamas province. RGADA, f. 159, Prikaznye dela novoi razborki, op. 3, Novgorodskaia chetvert’, d. 448, ll. 25–28, no later than 12 October 1675.Google Scholar

74. The Novgorodskaia chetvert' instructed the governor of Arzamas that if any other “schismatics or fascinated people” (raskolniki i prelesnye liudi) were uncovered doing “an evil thing” (zloi del), then they should be imprisoned in an isolated cell. RGADA, f. 159, op. 3, d. 448, ll. 29–30, 13 October 1675. Arzamas's governor reported with alarm the discovery of Old Believers in his province, which he feared would induce more violence among the local peasantry. RGADA, f. 159, d. 563, ll. 93–97, 12 May 1676.Google Scholar

75. With the inconsistent extant records it is difficult to make a direct comparison, but 176,580 peasants in 1678 in Kazan' and Simbirsk provinces were iasachnye luidi versus only 31,260 serfs in 1662–1672. Alishev, Istoricheskie sudby narodov Srednego Povolzh'ia, p. 96. By the end of the eighteenth century, only 32% of the peasantry in Kazan' province were serfs, while the remainder were state peasants. Janet M. Hartley, A Social History of the Russian Empire, 1650–1825 (London: Longman, 1999), p. 19.Google Scholar

76. Vereshchagin, Proshloe nashego kraia, #4, 6 August 1662, p. 23; #5, no earlier than 26 September 1663, pp. 2324.Google Scholar

77. In 1664, four Tatars in service from the village of Elkovka in Simbirsk received the right to their village, which they attempted to legally give to the village's remaining iasachnye Tatars. The petitioners wrote that they only entered the tsar's service to be awarded land so the village Tatars would no longer be “exiled or convicted” and no longer “be questioned” by Muscovite authorities. Martynov, Seleniia Simbirskogo uezda, 25 May 1664, pp. 184185.Google Scholar

78. Grekov and Lebedev, Dokumenty i materialy po istorii mordovskoi ASSR, I, #115, 1 March 1667, pp. 320321.Google Scholar

79. To ensure this policy, the Prikaz also notified the current governor of the change in policy. RGADA, f. 1103, Arzamasskaia prikaznaia izba, op. 1, d. 25a, 1682. This policy is a change from the desires of local beekeepers in Nizhegorod, Kozmodem'iansk, and Kurmysh provinces during the 1660s. Then those apiarists petitioned their landlord, the Makar'evskii Zheltovodskii Monastery in Nizhnii Novgorod, asking for privilege of paying their tribute in cash rather than honey. They wanted to sell their honey directly to merchants, rather than allowing the monastery to profit as the middleman. Akty iuridicheskie, ili sobranie form starinnago deloproizovodstva (St Petersburg, 1838), #202, 211–214, 23 June 1663 (Nizhegorod), 23 June 1663 (Kozmodem'iansk), and 20 June 1664 (Kurmysh).Google Scholar

80. Hartley, Social History of the Russian Empire, pp. 20–21; David Moon, The Russian Peasantry 1600–1930: The World the Peasants Made (London: Longman, 1999), p. 79.Google Scholar

81. The Mordvins of the village of Maloe Moresevo in Alatyr' petitioned the tsar in 1680 about losing their land to Russians. The state's reply informed the Mordvins that they had no reason to complain because they were supposed to claim their new land in the village of Mokshalev in Saransk province. RGADA, f. 1103, op. 1, d. 24, January 1681. Other Mordvin villages, such as that of the elder Rozan Siavashev in Arzamas province, received instructions detailing their move from the interior of the Volga Region to their new home along a river outside of the city of Saransk. RGADA, f. 281, op. 7, d. 10824, February 1683. For a discussion of monastic landholding among the Maris' traditional lands, see Ivanov, A. G., Ocherki po istorii Mariiskogo kraia XVIII veka (Ioshkar-Ola: Mariiskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1995), pp. 80106.Google Scholar

82. The Mordvins protested the arrival of Russian peasants who were seizing their lands. RGADA, f. 281, op. 1, d. 291, 5 January 1645; and RGADA, f. 281, op. 1, d. 277, 16 February 1688,11. 1–5.5.Google Scholar

83. Overall, from 1624–1626 to 1721, there was a 33% decline in Mordvin households in three representative districts (stany) of Alatyr' province (Nizsurskii, Verkhalatyrskii, and Verkhosurskii). A. Geraklitov, Alatyrskaia Mordva po perepisiam 1624–1721 gg. (Saransk, 1936), pp. 1524.Google Scholar

84. The change against monastic landholding was more common in the northern Middle Volga than in its southern portions, where the state continued to support monastic landholding. For example, in 1686 the state supported the claim of the Savvo-Storozhevskii Monastery of Simbirsk against its Tatar peasants in Voznesenskoe, who tried to get released from monastic supervision. RGADA, f. 281, op. 8, d. 11557, 26 July 1686.Google Scholar

85. For the Muslim Murzii Tatars, see Polnoe sobranie zakonov Russiiskoi Imperii (PSZ), Series 1, 45 vols (St Petersburg: Tipografiia i obdelenie sobstvennoi ego Imperatorskogo Velichestva Kontseliariia, 1830), Vol. 2, #823, p. 267, 21 May 1680; #867, pp. 312–313, 16 May 1681; and #870, p. 315, 24 May 1681. Following the offers to Muslim Tatars, nearby animist Mordvins were offered incentives for conversion to Orthodoxy on 16 May 1681. see Mozharovskii, Apollon, “Po istorii prosveshcheniia Nizhegorodskoi mordvy,Nizhegorodskiia eparkhial'nyia vedomosti, Vol. 16, 1890, pp. 664665.Google Scholar

86. PSZ, Vol. 2, pp. 467468, 23 September 1682.Google Scholar

87. For example, Metropolitan Adrian of Kazan' warned Archimandrite Misail of the Maloiunginskii Monastery in Kozmodem'iansk to watch all of the converted peasants on the monastery's estates. Grekov and Lebedev, Dokumenty i materialy po istorii Mordovskoi ASSR, Vol. 2, #208, 16 November 1687, p. 72.Google Scholar

88. Islaev, F. G., Pravoslavnye missionery v Povolzh'e (Kazan': Tatarskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1999), and Werth, Paul W., “Coercion and Conversion: Violence and Mass Baptism of the Volga Peoples, 1740–55,Kritika, Vol. 4, 2003, pp. 543569.Google Scholar