Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T14:10:20.218Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Left Behind? Russia’s Entry Bars and Gender Relations in Tajikistan

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 June 2020

Natalia Zotova Open the ORCID record for Natalia Zotova [Opens in a new window]  and
Jeffrey H. Cohen
Natalia Zotova*
Affiliation:
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Jeffrey H. Cohen
Affiliation:
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
*
**Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Russia remains the destination of choice for Tajik migrants. Its migration policies have profound implications for migrants’ legal status and capacity to remit and return home. This article draws on ethnographic research in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, and explores how the enforcement of Russia’s immigration laws affects Tajik migrants and their families. By 2016, over 300,000 Tajik migrants were issued entry bars (zapret na v’ezd) for three or more years for two or more administrative offenses, including the lack of a work permit or a residential registration and a traffic violation. Migration and the transnational lifestyle increase agency among Tajik men and women, informing gender transformations. Entry bars produce temporary constraints to spatial and social mobility as migrants readjust to well-defined gender roles in their home country. We note how immigration laws affect men and women in different ways, contextualizing the gendered effects of entry bars through the lens of gender relations and understandings of masculinity and femininity in Tajikistan. We argue that the constraints to migrants’ mobility developed by Russian migration policies inform the reconstitution of gender relations in Tajikistan.

Keywords

migrationimmigration lawsgenderCentral AsiaTajikistanRussia
Type
Special Issue Article
Information
Nationalities Papers , Volume 48 , Special Issue 4: Special Issue on Migrant Rights, Agency, and Vulnerability , July 2020 , pp. 675 - 689
Copyright
© Association for the Study of Nationalities 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abashin, Sergei. 2017. “Migration Policies in Russia: Laws and Debates.” In Migrant Workers in Russia. Global Challenges of the Shadow Economy in Societal Transformation, edited by Heusala, Anna-Liisa and Aitamurto, Kaarina, 16–34. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Agadjanian, Victor, Menjívar, Cecilia, and Zotova, Natalia. 2017. “Legality, Racialization, and Immigrants’ Experience of Ethnoracial Harassment in Russia”. Social Problems 64 (4): 558–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agadjanian, Victor and Zotova, Natalia. 2014. “Immigration and HIV Risks: Central Asian Female Migrants in the Russian Federation” (in Russian). Demographic Review 1 (2): 85–109.Google Scholar
Agadjanian, Victor and Zotova, Natalia. 2019. “Structure, Culture, and HIV/STI Vulnerabilities among Migrant Women in Russia.” Immigration and Health: Advances in Medical Sociology 19: 47–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aitieva, Medina. 2015. “Reconstituting Transnational Families: An Ethnography of Family Practices between Kyrgyzstan and Russia.” PhD diss., University of Manchester.Google Scholar
Åkesson, Lisa. 2004. “Making a Life: Meanings of Migration in Cape Verde”. PhD diss., Gothenburg University.Google Scholar
Ali, Syed. 2007. “Go West Young Man: The Culture of Migration among Muslims in Hyderabad, India.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33 (1): 37–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azevedo, Joao Pedro, Atamanov, Aziz, and Rajabov, Alisher. 2014. “Poverty Reduction and Shared Prosperity in Tajikistan: A Diagnostic (English).” Policy Research Working Paper no. WPS6923. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/599901468119377471/Poverty-reduction-and-shared-prosperity-in-Tajikistan-a-diagnostic. (Accessed April 16, 2016.)Google Scholar
Bahovadinova, Malika. 2016. “Tajikistan’s Bureaucratic Management of Exclusion: Responses to the Russian Reentry Ban Database.” Central Asian Affairs 3: 226–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bastia,  Tanja. 2013. “I Am Going, with or Without You: Autonomy in Bolivian Transnational Migrations.” Gender, Place and Culture 20 (2): 160–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bastia,  Tanja and Busse, Erika. 2011. “Transnational Migration and Changing Gender Relations in Peruvian and Bolivian Cities”. Diversities 13 (1): 19–33. www.unesco.org/shs/diversities/vol13/issue1/art2. (Accessed September 25, 2019.)Google Scholar
Bazin, Laurent. 2008. “Some Responses to Globalization in Uzbekistan. State Authoritarianism, Migrant Labour and Neo-traditionalism.” Anthropology of the Middle East 3 (1): 10–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernard, Russell. 2011. Research Methods in Anthropology. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. 5th ed. Lanham: AltaMira Press.Google Scholar
Brettell, Caroline B. and Hollifield, James F.. 2015. Migration Theory. Talking Across Disciplines. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Carling, John. 2001. “Aspiration and Ability in International Migration: Cape Verdean Experiences of Mobility and Immobility.” PhD diss., University of Oslo.Google Scholar
Castellani, Simone and Martín-Díaz, Emma. 2019. “Re-writing the Domestic role: Transnational Migrants’ Households between Informal and Formal Social Protection in Ecuador and in Spain.” Comparative Migration Studies 7: 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi,  Susanne. 2019. “Migration, Masculinity, and Family.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45 (1): 78–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleuziou, Juliette. 2017. “Towards Matrifocal Families? Relations in Transnational and Single Parent Families in Tajikistan.” In The Family in Central Asia, Past and Present: New Perspective, edited by Roche, Sophie, 309–336. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag.Google Scholar
Cleuziou, Juliette and Direnberger, Lucia. 2016. “Gender and Nation in Post-Soviet Central Asia: from National Narratives to Women’s Practices.” Nationalities Papers 44 (2): 195–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Jeffrey H. 2015. Eating Soup without a Spoon. Anthropological Theory and Method in the Real World. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Cooley, Alexander and Heathershaw, John. 2017. Dictators without Borders: Power and Money in Central Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
DeCuir-Gunby, Jessica T., Marshall, Patricia L., and Mcculloch, Allison W.. 2011. “Developing and Using a Codebook for the Analysis of Interview Data: An Example from a Professional Development Research Developing and Using a Codebook for the Analysis of Interview.” Field Methods 23 (2): 136–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Genova, Nicholas. 2013. “Spectacles of Migrant ‘Illegality’: The Scene of Exclusion, the Obscene of Inclusion.” Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies 36 (7): 1180–1198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Genova, Nicholas. 2011. “Alien Powers: Deportable Labor and the Spectacle of Security.” In The Contested Politics of Mobility: Borderzones and Irregularity, edited by Squire, Vicki, 91–115. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
De Genova, Nicholas. 2010. “The Deportation Regime: Sovereignty, Space, and the Freedom of Movement.” In The Deportation Regime: Sovereignty, Space, and the Freedom of Movement, edited by de Genova, Nicholas and Peutz, Nathalie, 33–65. Durham: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Genova, Nicholas. 2005. Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and ‘Illegality’ in Mexican Chicago. Durham: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Genova, Nicholas. 2002. “Migrant “Illegality” and Deportability in Everyday Life.” Annual Review of Anthropology 31: 419–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehrkamp,  Patricia. 2013. “‘I’ve Had It with Them!’ Younger Migrant Women’s Spatial Practices of Conformity and Resistance.” Gender, Place and Culture 20 (1): 19–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Encinas-Franco, Jean, Ang, Alvin, Opiniano, Jeremaiah, and Sescon, Joselito. 2015. “Policy Paper: Gender, Migration and Development in the Philippines.” United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. New York: UN Women.Google Scholar
Erdal, Marta Bivand and Pawlak, Marek. 2018. “Reproducing, Transforming and Contesting Gender Relations and Identities through Migration and Transnational Ties.” Gender, Place & Culture 25 (6): 882–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erel, Umut and Lutz, Helma. 2012. “Introduction: Gender and Transnationalism.” European Journal of Women’s Studies 19 (4): 409–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fassin, Didier. 2011. “Policing Borders, Producing Boundaries. The Governmentality of Immigration in Dark Times.” Annual Review of Anthropology 40: 213–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 2004. Security, Territory, Population. Lectures at the College de France 1977–1978. Edited by Davidson, Arnold I.. New York: Picador.Google Scholar
Golash-Boza, Tanya and Hondagneu-Sotelo, Pierrette. 2013. “Latino Immigrant Men and the Deportation Crisis: A Gendered Racial Removal Program.” Latino Studies 11 (3): 271–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzales, Roberto G. and Sigona, Nando, eds. 2017. Within and Beyond Citizenship: Borders, Membership and Belonging. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzales, Roberto G. 2013. Reform Without Justice: Latino Migrant Politics and the Homeland Security State. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorina, Evgenia, Agadjanian, Victor, and Zotova, Natalia. 2018. “Migrant Women’s Economic Success in Russia: Objective Reality and Subjective Assessment.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 44 (9): 1584–1603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gosstat (Gosudarstvennaya Statistika). 2016. “The Entry of Foreign-born Nationals in RF.” https://fedstat.ru/indicator/38479. (Accessed September 25, 2019.)Google Scholar
Grigoriev, Leonid, Golyashev, Alexander, Buryak, Evgenia, Lobanova, Anna, and Kulpina, Vera. 2016. “Construction and Real Estate Market During Economic Recession” (in Russian). Bulletin of the Social and Economic Crisis in Russia 11. Moscow: Analytical Center at the Government of the Russian Federation.Google Scholar
Gupta, Sanjeev, Pattillo, Catherine, and Wagh, Smita. 2009. “Effect of Remittances on Poverty and Financial Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” World Development 37 (1): 104–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Colette. 2008. Control and Subversion: Gender Relations in Tajikistan. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Heathershaw, John. 2009. Post-Conflict Tajikistan: The Politics of Peacebuilding and the Emergence of Legitimate Order. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, Erin. 2017. “Who Goes to Russia? Understanding Gendered Migration Patterns.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 58 (1): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hondagneo-Sotelo, Pierrette. 2003. “Gender and Immigration: A Retrospective and Introduction.” In Gender and US Immigration: Contemporary Trends, edited by Hondagneo-Sotelo, Pierrette, 3–19. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hondagneo-Sotelo, Pierrette. 1994. Gendered Transitions. Mexicans Experiences of Immigration. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ilkhamov, Alisher. 2013. “Labor Migration and the Ritual Economy of the Uzbek Extended Family.” Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 138: 259–284.Google Scholar
Itzigsohn, José and Giorguli-Saucedo, Silvia. 2005. “Incorporation, Transnationalism, and Gender: Immigrant Incorporation and Transnational Participation as Gendered Processes.” International Migration Review 39 (4): 895–920.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, Michael. 2008. “The Shock of the New: On Migrant Imaginaries and Critical Transitions.” Ethnos 73: 57–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Larissa, Black, Richard, and Skeldon, Ronald. 2007. “Migration and Poverty Reduction in Tajikistan.” Working Paper C11. Brighton: Development Research Center on Migration, Globalization and Poverty. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.581.3935&rep=rep1&type=pdf. (Accessed October 17, 2019.)Google Scholar
Jónsson, Gustav. 2007. “The Mirage of Migration: Migration, Aspirations and Immobility in a Malian Soninke Village.” Master’s thesis, University of Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Kandel, William and Massey, Douglas. 2002. “The Culture of Mexican Migration: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis.” Social Forces 80 (3): 981–1004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kikuta,  Haruka. 2016. “Remittances, Rituals and Reconsidering Women’s Norms in Mahallas: Emigrant Labour and its Social Effects in Ferghana Valley.” Central Asian Survey 35 (1): 91–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Elizabeth and Dudina, Victoria. 2019. “The Health Needs of Female Labor Migrants from Central Asia in Russia.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 21 (6): 1406–1415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, Elizabeth, Maksymenko, Kateryna, Almodovar-Diaz, Yadira, and Johnson, Sarah. 2016. ‘If She Is a Good Woman …’ and ‘To Be a Real Man …’: Gender, Risk and Access to HIV Services among Key Populations in Tajikistan.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 18 (4): 422–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kubal, Agnieszka. 2017. “Entry Bar as Surreptitious Deportation? Zapret na v’ezd in Russian Immigration Law and Practice: A Comparative Perspective.” Law & Social Inquiry 42 (3): 744–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, Michael. 2002. Longing for Exile: Migration and the Making of a Translocal Community in Senegal, West Africa. Heinemann, Portsmouth.Google Scholar
Langevang, Thilde. 2008 “‘We Are Managing!’ Uncertain Paths to Respectable Adulthoods in Accra, Ghana.” Geoforum 39: 2039–2047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Córdova, López, Ernesto, Andrea Tokman R. and Verhoogen, Eric A.. 2005. “Globalization, Migration and Development: The Role of Mexican Migrant Remittances.” Economía 6 (1): 217–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahler, Sarah J. and Pessar, Patricia R.. 2006. “Gender Matters: Ethnographers Bring Gender from the Periphery toward the Core of Migration Studies.” International Migration Review 40 (1): 27–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marat, Erica. 2009. “Labour Migration in Central Asia: Implications of the Global Economic Crisis.” Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program, May 2009.Google Scholar
Massey, Douglas and Pren, Karen. 2012. “Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America.” Population and Development Review 38 (1): 1–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Menjívar, Cecilia. 2000. Fragmented Ties. Salvadoran Immigrant Networks in America. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Menozzi, Clare. 2016. International Migration Report 2015. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. New York.Google Scholar
World Bank Group. Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016. 2016. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.Google Scholar
MIARF (Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation). 2016. “Statistics on Migration into Russia in 2016, by Countries of Origin and Regions of Settlement.” https://xn--b1aew.xn--p1ai/Deljatelnost/statistics/migracionnaya/item/9359228/. (Accessed March 4, 2017.)Google Scholar
Nourzhanov, Kirill and Bleuer, Christian. 2013. Tajikistan a Political and Social History. Canberra: The Australian National University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oishi, Nana. 2005. Women in Motion: Globalization, State Policies, and Labor Migration in Asia. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Olimova, Saodat. 2006. Denezhniy perevod i ih vliyaniye na uroven’ zhisni v Khatlonskoy oblasti Respublika Tajikistan. [Money Transfers and Their Impact on Wellbeing in Khatlon Province, Republic of Tajikistan]. Dushanbe: IOM and Shark Research Center.Google Scholar
Olimova, Saodat and Bosc, Igor. 2003. Labour Migration from Tajikistan. Dushanbe: International Organization for Migration.Google Scholar
Orozco, Manuel. 2002. “Globalization and Migration: The Impact of Family Remittances in Latin America.” Latin American Politics and Society 44 (2): 41–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osella, Filippo and Osella, Caroline. 2000. “Migration, Money, and Masculinity in Kerala.” Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute 6: 117–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parreñas, Rhacel S. 2015. Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration, and Domestic Work. 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prothmann, Sebastian. 2018. “Migration, Masculinity and Social Class: Insights from Pikine, Senegal.” International Migration 56 (4): 96–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeves, Madeleine. 2016a. “Diplomat, Landlord, Con-artist, Thief: Housing Brokers and the Mediation of Risk in Migrant Moscow.” The Cambridge Journal of Anthropology 34 (2): 93–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeves, Madeleine. 2016b. “The Black List: On Infrastructural Indeterminacy and Its Reverberations.” In Infrastructures and Social Complexity: A Companion, edited by Harvey, Penny, Jansen, Casper Bruun, and Morita, Atsuro, 296–308. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Reeves, Madeleine. 2015. “Living from the Nerves: Deportability, Indeterminacy and the Feel of Law in Migrant Moscow.” Social Analysis 59 (4): 119–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeves, Madeleine. 2013a. “Migration, Masculinity, and Transformations of Social Space in the Sokh Valley, Uzbekistan.” In Migration and Social Upheaval as the Face of Globalization in Central Asia, edited by Laruelle, Marlene, 305–329 . Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Reeves, Madeleine. 2013b. “Clean Fake: Authenticating Documents and Persons in Migrant Moscow.” American Ethnologist 40 (3): 508–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeves, Мadeleine. 2009. “Po tu Storonu Econimicheskogo Determinizma: Microdinamika Migratsii iz Sel’skogy Kirgizstana” [Beyond Economic Determinism: Microdynamics of Migration from Rural Kyrgyzstan]. Neprikosnovenniy Zapas 4 (66) : 262–280.Google Scholar
Regamey, Amadine. 2010. “The Image of Migrants and Migration Policy in Russia” (in Russian). Anthropologicheskiy Forum 13: 398-406.Google Scholar
Rocheva, Anna and Varshaver, Evgeni. 2017. “Gender Dimension of Migration from Central Asia to the Russian Federation.” Asia-Pacific Population Journal 32 (2): 87–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodriguez, Robyn. 2008. “Domestic Debates: Constructions of Gendered Migration from the Philippines.” The Scholar and Feminist Online 6 (3). http://sfonline.barnard.edu/immigration/print_rrodriguez.htm. (Accessed December 27, 2018.)Google Scholar
Rodriquez, Robyn. 2002. “Migrant Heroes: Nationalism, Citizenship and the Politics of Filipino Migrant Labor.” Citizenship Studies 3 (3): 341–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rougier, Eric and Yol, Nicolas. 2019. “The Volatility Effect of Diaspora’s Location.” The World Economy 42(6): 1– 32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubinov, Igor. 2014. “Migrant Assemblages: Building Postsocialist Households with Kyrgyz Remittances.” Anthropological Quarterly 87 (1): 183–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, Gery W. and Bernard, Russell H.. 2003. “Techniques to Identify Themes.” Field Methods 15 (1): 85–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schenk, Caress. 2018. Why Control Immigration? Strategic Uses of Migration Management in Russia. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segura, Denise and Facio, Elisa. 2008. “Adelante Mujer: Latina Activism, Feminism, and Empowerment.” In Latinas/os in the United States: Changing the Face of America, edited by Rodriguez, Havidan, Saenz, Rogelio, and Menjivar, Cecilia, 294–307. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, Babita, Jha, Smita, and Negi, Nalin Singh. 2012. “Migration and Empowerment: The Experience of Women in Households in India Where Migration of a Husband has Occurred.” Journal of Gender Studies 21 (1): 61–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strokova, Victoria and Ajwad, Mohamed I.. 2017. “Tajikistan Jobs Diagnostic: Strategic Framework for Jobs.” World Bank, Washington, DC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
TSA (Tajikistan Statistical Agency). 2017. https://www.stat.tj/tj/tables-real-sector. (Accessed September 25, 2019.)Google Scholar
Ullah, Ahsan AKM 2017. “Male Migration and ‘Left-behind’ Women. Bane or Boon?” Environment and Urbanization Asia 8 (1): 59–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ulmasov, Rakhim. 2016. Tajikistan v Zerkale Migratsii [Tajikistan in the Mirror of Migration]. Dushanbe: Russian-Tajik Slavonic University.Google Scholar
Umarov, Hodjamuhamad. 2010. Tadjikskaya Trudovaya Migratziya v Usloviyah Globalnovo Finansovovo Krizisa: Prichin i Posledstiviya [Tajik Labor Migration during the Global Financial Crisis: Causes and Consequences]. Dushanbe: IOM.Google Scholar
Whitsel, Christopher. 2011. “Counting the Costs: Informal Costs and Corruption Expenses of Education in Post-Soviet Tajikistan.” Problems of Post-Communism 58 (3): 28–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, Diane L. 1992. Factory Daughters: Gender, Household Dynamics and Rural Industrialization in Java. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2018a. “Unemployment, Total (% of Total Labour Force) (Modeled ILO Estimate).” https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS. (Accessed April 9, 2019.)Google Scholar
World Bank. 2018b. “Tajikistan: Country Context.” https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/tajikistan/overview. (Accessed April 9, 2019.)Google Scholar
Yu, Tseun K. 2007. “An Empowerment Approach to Female Migration. A Case Study of China’s Manufacturing Industry.” Working Paper no. 07-79. London: Development Studies Institute. http://www.lse.ac.uk/internationaldevelopment/pdf/wp/wp79.pdf. (Accessed November 17, 2019.)Google Scholar
Zentgraf, Kristine M. 2002. “Immigration and Women’s Empowerment. Salvadorans in Los Angeles.” Gender and Society 16 (5): 625–646.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zotova, Natalia and Agadjanian, Victor. 2017. “Gendered Pathways: Central Asian Migration through the Lens of Embodiment.” In Revisiting Gender and Migration, edited by Yucesahin, Murat and Yazgan, Pinar, 41–60. London: Transnational Press.Google Scholar
Zotova, Natalia and Cohen, Jeffrey H.. 2019. “Class Dynamics in Tajikistan: Development of Urban Middle Class at the Intersection of Migration and Capital.” Population, Space and Place. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zotova, Natalia and Cohen, Jeffrey H.. 2016. “Remittances and Their Social Meaning in Tajikistan.” Remittances Review 1 (1): 5–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zotova, Natalia. 2012. “Kishlak u Reki: Opyt Issledovaniya Migratsionnyh Protsessov na Primere Odnogo Poseleniya” [A Kishlak by the River: Migration from Tajikistan and a Case Study of One Settlement]. Ethnographicheskoye Obozreniye 4: 51–67.Google Scholar