Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T05:17:21.875Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Karabakh conflict and Armenia's failed transition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2019

Arman Grigoryan*
Affiliation:
International Relations Department, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
*

Abstract

Despite its early promise, Armenia's transition to democracy has stalled. The literature on post-Communist transitions ascribes this outcome to the autocratic preferences of its first generation of leaders, and particularly the country's first president Levon Ter-Petrossian. I argue in this article that that literature depicts a profoundly distorted picture of the Armenian politics of the 1990s. The failure of Armenia's transition was primarily due to the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh and the political processes it set in motion.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © 2018 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

“A Democracy Loses Its Way.” 1998. Editorial, Washington Post, February 7, A22.Google Scholar
Andreski, Stanislav. 1954. Military Organization and Society. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
“Armenia: Presidential Hegemony.” 1994. Oxford Analytica Daily Brief, April 28, 1.Google Scholar
Astourian, Stepan. 2000. “From Ter-Petrosian to Kocharian: Leadership Change in Armenia.” Berkeley Program in Eurasian and East European Studies Working Papers Series (Winter): 1–64.Google Scholar
Bezirjian, Khachatur. 1996. “Entrutyounneri Verjnakan Ardyounqnere Chen Karogh Kaskatsi Yenntaka Linel [The Final Results of the Elections Cannot Be Subject to Doubt].” Hayastani Hanrapetutyun, October 4.Google Scholar
Bremmer, Ian, and Welt, Cory. 1997. “Armenia's New Autocrats.” Journal of Democracy 8 (3): 7890.Google Scholar
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. 1995. Report on Armenia's Parliamentary Election and Constitutional Referendum. Washington, DC: Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015034506173;view=1up;seq=1.Google Scholar
“Dark Days in Armenia.” 2008. Editorial, New York Times, March 7, A18.Google Scholar
Defeis, Elizabeth. 1998. “Elections and Democracy: Armenia, a Case Study.” Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 20:455474.Google Scholar
de Waal, Thomas. 2003. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through War and Peace. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, Larry. 2002. “Thinking About Hybrid Regimes.” Journal of Democracy 13 (2): 2135.Google Scholar
Dolman, Carl Everett. 2004. The Warrior State: How Military Organization Structures Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Dudwick, Nora. 1997. “Political Transformations in Postcommunist Armenia.” In Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus, edited by Dawisha, Karen and Parrott, Bruce, 69109. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
“Excerpts from the Statement by Gorbachev to Armenians.” 1988. New York Times, February 27, A6.Google Scholar
Fish, M. Steven. 2001. “The Dynamics of Democratic Reversion.” In Postcommunism and the Theory of Democracy, edited by Anderson, Richard D. Jr., Fish, M. Steven, Hanson, Stephen E., and G Roeder, Philip, 5495. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
“Four Questions to Vazgen Manoukian.” 1991. Armenia at the Crossroads: Democracy and Nationhood in the Post-Soviet Era, edited by Libaridian, Gerard J., 3946. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane.Google Scholar
Galstyan, Hambardzum. 1991. “Riga Meetings.” In Armenia at the Crossroads: Democracy and Nationhood in the Post-Soviet Era, edited by Libaridian, Gerard J., 8794. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane.Google Scholar
Goemans, Hein. 2000. War and Punishment: The Causes of War Termination and the First World War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hale, Henry. 2015. Patronal Politics: Eurasian Regime Dynamics in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harutyunyan, Avetis. 2005. Gyadaneri Zhamanake [The Era of the Riffraff]. Yerevan: Printinfo.Google Scholar
Herszenhorn, David. 2015. “Clashes Intensify between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Disputed Land.” New York Times, January 31, A10.Google Scholar
Hiatt, Fred. 1995. “Even for Armenia Democracy Has Some Limits.” International Herald Tribune, June 9.Google Scholar
Hintze, Otto. 1975. “Military Organization and the Organization of the State.” In The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze, edited by Gilbert, Felix, 179215. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
“Interview with Ktrich Sardarian.” 1991. Armenia at the Crossroads: Democracy and Nationhood in the Post-Soviet Era, edited by Libaridian, Gerard J., 8794. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane.Google Scholar
Ishkhanian, Rafael. 1991. “The Law of Excluding the Third Force.” In Armenia at the Crossroads: Democracy and Nationhood in the Post-Soviet Era, edited by Libaridian, Gerard J., 938. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane.Google Scholar
Labs, Eric. 1997. “Beyond Victory: Offensive Realism and the Expansion of War Aims.” Security Studies 6 (4): 149.Google Scholar
Le Vine, Steve. 1995. “Tough Armenian Leaders Make Allies in West Squirm,” New York Times, November 27, A9.Google Scholar
Le Vine, Steve. 1996. “Armenia's Chief Faces Protests over Election.” New York Times, September 24, A6.Google Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism, Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lewin, Moshe. 1995. “Society, Past and Present, in Interpreting Russia.” In Beyond Soviet Studies, edited by Orlovsky, Daniel, 5671. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, Bernard. 1968. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Libaridian, Gerard J. 1988. The Karabagh File. Cambridge, MA: Zoryan Institute.Google Scholar
Libaridian, Gerard J., ed. 1991. Armenia at the Crossroads: Democracy and Nationhood in the Post-Soviet Era. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane.Google Scholar
Libaridian, Gerard J. 1999. The Challenge of Statehood: Armenian Political Thinking Since Independence. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane.Google Scholar
Libaridian, Gerard J. 2014. “AMNe Dem er Ter-Petrossianin yev Ognets Ishkhanutyan Gal Kocharyanin [The USA Opposed Ter-Petrossian and Helped Kocharian to Take Power].” 168 Zham, April 1.Google Scholar
Linz, Juan. 1990. “The Perils of Presidentialism.” Journal of Democracy 1 (1): 5169.Google Scholar
Linz, Juan. 1994. “Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference?” In The Failure of Presidential Democracy: The Case of Latin America, edited by Linz, Juan J. and Valenzuela, Arturo, 389. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Manoukian, Vazgen. 1990. “Menq Hamashkharhayin Azg enq [We Are a Global Nation].” Hayastani Hanrapetutyun, December 16.Google Scholar
McFaul, Michael. 2002. “The Fourth Wave of Democracy and Dictatorship: Noncooperative Transitions in the Postcommunist World.” World Politics 54 (2): 212244.Google Scholar
Melander, Erik. 2001. “The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Revisited: Was the War Inevitable?Journal of Cold War Studies 3 (2): 4875.Google Scholar
Mulcare, Jack. 2015. “Face Off: The Coming War between Armenia and Azerbaijan.” National Interest, April 9.Google Scholar
ODIHR (Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights). 1998. Republic of Armenia Presidential Election, March 16 and 30: Final Report. Vienna: Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/armenia/14192?download=true.Google Scholar
ODIHR. 2003. Republic of Armenia Presidential Election, 19 February and 5 March: Final Report. Warsaw: Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/armenia/14054?download=true.Google Scholar
ODIHR. 2008. Republic of Armenia Presidential Election, 19 February: Final Report. Warsaw: Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/armenia/32115?download=true.Google Scholar
Osborne, Simon. 1996. Armenia's Presidential Elections, 24 September: Final Report. Vienna: Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/armenia/14149?download=true.Google Scholar
Przeworski, Adam, and Limongi, Fernando. 1997. “Modernization: Theories and Facts.” World Politics 49 (2): 155183.Google Scholar
Siradeghyan, Vano. 2005. Yerkir Ts'pahanj [Country Poste Restante]. Yerevan: Gasprint.Google Scholar
Sneider, Daniel. 1995. “Democracy Teeters in Three Ex-Soviet States.” Christian Science Monitor, May 30, 6.Google Scholar
Snyder, Jack. 2000. From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Spencer, Michael. 1997. “A Drift to Dictatorship Clouds Armenia's Happiness.” New York Times, January 3, A1.Google Scholar
Stefes, Christoph H. 2006. Understanding Post-Soviet Transitions: Corruption, Collusion, and Clientalism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Stepan, Alfred, and Skach, Cindy. 1993. “Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarism vs Presidentialism.” World Politics 46 (1): 122.Google Scholar
Suny, Ronald. 1993. Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Ter-Petrossian, Levon. 2006. Entrani [Selected Speeches, Articles and Interviews]. Yerevan: Printinfo.Google Scholar
Ter-Petrossian, Levon. 2018. Armenia's Future, Relations with Turkey, and the Karabagh Conflict. Edited by Grigoryan, Arman. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 1992. Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Zourabian, Levon. 2000. “Hayastani Antsumayin Qaghaqakanutyune Yev Adrbejani Het Khaghaghutyan Herankarnere [The Politics of Transition in Armenia and the Prospects for Peace with Azerbaijan].” Aravot, June 3.Google Scholar