This article reviews progress in magnetoresistive (MR) read sensor technology for hard-disk drives (HDDs). MR reader technology has progressed from the anisotropic magnetoresistance sensor, to the current-in-plane giant magnetoresistive (CIP-GMR) sensor, to today’s current-perpendicular-to-plane (CPP) tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) sensor. This evolution has driven the continuous growth of the areal density of HDDs from 2 Gbpsi (gigabits/in2) in early longitudinal recording to ∼1 Tbpsi (terabits/in2) currently in perpendicular magnetic recording. For further increases in the areal density, a transition to energy-assisted recording is expected in the near future. Further technical challenges for the read sensor technology toward 2 Tbpsi and then 5 Tbpsi areal densities are discussed based on recent promising experimental work on CPP-GMR using Heusler alloys, and CPP-GMR’s laterally expanded version, the lateral spin valve (LSV). To realize large MR output and narrow shield-to-shield spacing requirements for higher density recording, materials selection and optimization of interface structures of CPP-GMR and LSV devices are critical.

BaTiO3-based lead-free piezoelectric materials have long been known as “a mediocre class of piezoelectric materials.” However, they have seen significant renewed interest in recent years ever since the discovery of high piezoelectricity in Ba(Zr, Ti)O3-(Ba, Ca)TiO3 as well as the related Ba(Sn, Ti)O3-(Ba, Ca)TiO3 and Ba(Hf, Ti)O3-(Ba, Ca)TiO3 systems. The unexpectedly high piezoelectricity in this class of BaTiO3 (BT)-based materials is still not well understood and has stimulated significant research activity. We present a concise discussion of the notions leading to high piezoelectricity in BaTiO3-based systems. In particular, the possible role of a multiphase-coexisting point is highlighted.

Pseudoelastic NiTi-based shape-memory alloys (SMAs) have recently received attention as candidate materials for solid-state refrigeration. The elastocaloric effect in SMAs exploits stress-induced martensitic transformation, which is associated with large latent heat. Most importantly, cyclic mechanical loading/unloading provides large adiabatic temperature drops exceeding 25 K at high process efficiencies. This article summarizes the underlying principles, important material parameters and process requirements, and reviews recent progress in the development of pseudoelastic SMAs with large coefficients of performance, as well as very good functional fatigue resistance. The application potential of SMA film and bulk materials is demonstrated for the case of cyclic tensile loading/unloading in prototypes ranging from miniature-scale devices to large-scale cooling units.

Piezotronics can not only afford control of electronic transport over potential barriers, but the attendant mechanical stress can also influence various physical properties of piezoelectric semiconductors. Stress significantly affects the optical properties of these materials as well as their response toward the chemical environment and magnetic fields. This article focuses on the utilization of piezotronics with regard to these physical parameters for sensor applications. Stress sensors, optical sensors (especially in the ultraviolet range), and sensors for chemicals in gas and liquid phases or magnetic fields via coupled magnetostrictive layers are discussed. The benefits of piezotronics for sensors are highlighted by discussing respective figures of merit.

Conjugated polymers have emerged as potential candidates for thermal-energy harvesting. Their flexible and lightweight nature, as well as scalable processing, make them geometrically versatile for a large variety of applications, including powering wearable electronics that are not available for traditional inorganic materials. However, the long-range structural disorder greatly hinders their electrical conduction, and this far outweighs the induced low thermal conductivity; therefore, the thermoelectric performance needs to be significantly improved to fulfill the requirements of efficient devices. Composites and hybrid thermoelectric materials have been developed to capitalize on the individual strengths of conducting polymers and other components, including carbon nanotubes, graphene, and inorganic nanomaterials. In this article, we present recent advances in conjugated polymers, the associated hybrid thermoelectric composites, and the latest breakthroughs in the development of inorganic–organic hybrid superlattices.

Nonvolatile memories (NVMs) are key devices in computers to save a user’s information. Besides flash memory, several types of NVMs that use magnetoresistance, resistance change of metal oxides, and phase change of chalcogenide alloys have been studied. Among these, phase-change random-access memory (PC-RAM) is competitive from the viewpoint of switching speed, high durability, and scalability. In 2017, Intel and Micron Technology shipped commercial devices named Optane that use a phase-change material as storage class memories. Condensed-matter physicists have recently been attracted to phase-change materials because of their functionality as topological insulators. If the topological phase state is controllable and applied to PC-RAM, electron spin transfer and storage effects will be further available in addition to electrical resistance switching.

Solid inorganic and polymeric electrolytes have the potential to enable rechargeable batteries with higher energy densities, compared to current lithium-ion technology, which uses liquid electrolyte. Inorganic materials such as ceramics and glasses conduct lithium ions well, but they are brittle, which makes incorporation into a battery difficult. Polymers have the flexibility for facile use in a battery, but their transport properties tend to be inferior to inorganics. Thus, there is growing interest in composite electrolytes with inorganic and organic phases in intimate contact. This article begins with a discussion of ion transport in single-phase electrolytes. A dimensionless number (the Newman number) is presented for quantifying the efficacy of electrolytes. An effective medium framework for predicting transport properties of composite electrolytes containing only one conducting phase is then presented. The opportunities and challenges presented by composite electrolytes containing two conducting phases are addressed. Finally, the importance and status of reaction kinetics at the interfaces between solid electrolytes and electrodes are covered, using a lithium-metal electrode as an example.

Strong strain-mediated magnetoelectric (ME) coupling in magnetic/ferroelectric heterostructures has great potential for different high-frequency multiferroic devices. In this article, we present the most recent progress in integrated multiferroic devices. Integrated magnetic tunable inductors with a wide operation frequency range, integrated nonreciprocal bandpass filters with dual magnetic and electric-field tunability based on magnetostatics surface waves, and novel radio-frequency nanomechanical ME resonators with pico-Tesla sensitivity for direct current magnetic fields are presented. Finally, a new antenna miniaturization mechanism, acoustically actuated nanomechanical ME antennas, which can successfully miniaturize the size by 1–2 orders, is introduced. With the advantages of high magnetic field sensitivity, highest antenna gain among all nanoscale antennas at similar frequency, integrated capability with complementary metal oxide semiconductor technology, and ground-plane immunity from metallic surfaces and the human body, ME antennas have a bright future for biomedical applications, wearable antennas, and the Internet of Things due to their unique and particular properties.

Strain-mediated magnetoelectric coupling provides a powerful method for controlling nanoscale magnetism with an electric voltage. This article reviews the initial use of macroscale composites and subsequent experimental control of magnetic thin films, nanoscale heterostructures, and single domains. The discussion highlights several characteristics enabling small, fast, and energy-efficient technologies. The second section covers applications where strain-mediated magnetoelectricity has been used, with emphasis on the storage, transmission, and processing of information (i.e., memory, antenna, and logic devices). These advances are order-of-magnitude improvements over conventional technologies, and open up exciting new possibilities.

Spin-transfer-torque magnetoresistive random-access memory (STT-MRAM) is an emerging nonvolatile memory that uses magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) to store information. MTJs with a crystalline MgO(001) tunnel barrier sandwiched between ferromagnetic layers, such as CoFeB, exhibit giant tunnel magnetoresistance, which is used to readout the STT-MRAM. Writing of STT-MRAM is based on current-induced magnetization reversal, called STT switching. STT-MRAM with perpendicular magnetization is especially important for high-density and low-power-consuming memory applications such as embedded memory for large-scale integrated circuit. For STT-MRAM to replace ultrahigh-density dynamic random-access memory, however, there are still technological challenges concerning the materials and fabrication processes of MTJs. This article reviews the physics and materials science of MTJs for STT-MRAM. We also discuss the importance of new MTJ materials and processes for next-generation ultrahigh-density MRAM.

Solid-state electrolytes can offer improved lithium-ion battery safety while potentially increasing the energy density by enabling alkali metal anodes. There have been significant research efforts to improve the ionic conductivity of solid-state electrolytes and the electrochemical performance of all-solid-state batteries; however, the root causes of their poor performance—interfacial reaction and subsequent impedance growth—are poorly understood. This is due to the dearth of effective characterization techniques for probing these buried interfaces. In situ and operando methodologies are currently under development for solid-state interfaces, and they offer the potential to describe the dynamic interfacial processes that serve as performance bottlenecks. This article highlights state-of-the-art solid–solid interface probing methodologies, describes practical limitations, and describes a future for dynamic interfacial characterization.

Metallic materials are key for electrochemical energy conversion and storage when they are tailored into electrodes designed for rapid reaction kinetics, high electrical conductivities, and high stability. Nanoporous metals formed by dealloying could meet all of these requirements, as the dealloyed products beckon energy researchers with their fascinating structures and outstanding performance. In this article, we discuss the characteristics of dealloyed materials related to their functions in energy devices. We then review nanoporous metal electrodes for applications in fuel cells, supercapacitors, and batteries to provide insights into selection and design criteria for meeting the diverse needs of energy conversion and storage.

Harvesting energy from otherwise wasted resources has been intensively investigated as a promising technology especially for enabling the deployment of autonomous wireless-sensor networks for the Internet of Things. Multi-stimulus energy harvesting, simultaneously from different energy sources, provides an attractive opportunity to amplify the power density of harvesters, thereby extending their potential for self-powered devices. In this article, we review recent and ongoing research efforts aimed at enhancing the energy-harvesting performance of magnetoelectric (ME) composite harvesters employing dual stimuli, mechanical vibrations, and magnetic fields. After a brief introduction to vibration, magnetic field, and dual-mode energy harvesting, we survey the key materials utilized for ME energy harvesting. We then focus on progress in this area and discuss relevant ideas to realize electromechanical and magnetoelectric coupling for harvesting energy from mechanical vibrations and magnetic fields simultaneously. We provide perspectives and future directions as well.

Ongoing, rapid innovations in fields ranging from microelectronics, aerospace, and automotive to defense, energy, and health demand new advanced materials at even greater rates and lower costs. Traditional materials R&D methods offer few paths to achieve both outcomes simultaneously. Materials informatics, while a nascent field, offers such a promise through screening, growing databases of materials for new applications, learning new relationships from existing data resources, and building fast predictive models. We highlight key materials informatics successes from the atomic-scale modeling community, and discuss the ecosystem of open data, software, services, and infrastructure that have led to broad adoption of materials informatics approaches. We then examine emerging opportunities for informatics in materials science and describe an ideal data ecosystem capable of supporting similar widespread adoption of materials informatics, which we believe will enable the faster design of materials.

Ultrafast electron diffraction has been employed for the study of structural dynamics at surfaces in the time domain. Experiments were performed in a pump-probe setup with femtosecond-laser excitation and subsequent probing through diffraction of a femtosecond electron pulse at a temporal resolution of 350 fs. The system of interest is one atomic layer of indium atoms on a Si(111) surface. Through self-assembly, indium atomic wires form and exhibit a Peierls-like, insulator-to-metal phase transition that can be driven nonthermally through a femtosecond laser pulse. The transient intensity of the diffraction spots indicates the lifting of the Peierls transition and melting of a charge-density wave in only 700 fs, heating of the surface in 6 ps, and formation of a metastable and supercooled phase, which exists for nanoseconds.

Electrochemical catalyst design and optimization primarily relies on understanding and facilitating interfacial charge transfer. Recently, piezotronics have emerged as a promising method for tuning the interfacial energetics. The unique band-engineering capability using piezoelectric or ferroelectric polarization could lead to performance gains for electrochemical catalysis beyond what can be achieved by chemical or structural optimization. This article addresses the fundamentals of surface polarization and corresponding band modulation at solid–liquid interfaces. The most recent advances in piezotronic modulations are discussed from multiple perspectives of catalysis, including photocatalytic, photoelectrochemical, and electrochemical processes, particularly for energy-related applications. The concept of piezocatalysis, a direct conversion of mechanical energy to chemical energy, is introduced with an example of mechanically driven water splitting. While still in the early stages, piezotronics is envisioned to become a powerful tool for revolutionizing electrochemical catalysis.

Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) relies on careful management of heat flow at the nanoscale. This article describes the heat-transfer aspects of such a system that must be considered above and beyond standard Fourier’s Law-based heat conduction. A background on nanoscale heat transport is provided that discusses energy carriers and the role of interfaces and microstructure in nanoscale conduction. These heat-transport concepts are applied to the key components of the HAMR system—the head (principally, the near-field transducer [NFT]) and the magnetic medium. This analysis frames the central challenge of thermal engineering for a HAMR system—getting the medium hot enough while maintaining a NFT that it is cool enough to avoid degradation over time. Of particular note are discussions on the role of the interface thermal conductance in the NFT and the importance of thermal anisotropy in the medium due to its granular microstructure.

Elastocaloric materials exhibit extraordinary cooling potential, but the repetition of cyclic mechanical loadings during long-term operation of cooling systems requires the refrigerant material to have long fatigue life. This article reviews the fundamental cause of fatigue from aspects of initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks in shape-memory alloys (SMAs) that are used as elastocaloric materials, and highlights recent advances in using compression to overcome fatigue by curtailing the generation of surfaces associated with crack propagation. Compression is identified as a key means to extend fatigue lifetime in engineering design of elastocaloric cooling drive mechanisms. We summarize the state-of-the-art performance of different SMAs as elastocaloric materials and discuss the influence of low cyclic strains and high resistance to transformation. We present integration of compression-based material assemblies into a cooling system prototype and optimization of the system efficiency using work recovery and related measures.

Sodium bismuth titanate (NBT) and its solid solutions with other ABO3 perovskites are of great interest for lead-free ferroelectric and piezoelectric applications. In this article, we provide an introduction to the complex structure of NBT, including atomic displacements and nanoscale defects. We also review poling effects and properties as well as NBT-ABO3 phase equilibria. The interesting relaxor properties, frequency dispersion in dielectric permittivity, and field-induced structural phase transitions of these systems are discussed. Finally, we describe other functional, mechanical, and electrical properties of NBT.

Faraday rotators in optical isolators, typically composed of iron garnets, are photonic analogues of electrical diodes in that they do not allow reciprocal transmission of light. Isolators are especially important for blocking back-reflected light from reaching source lasers, as such feedback gives rise to unwanted noise and instabilities. In commonly implemented photonic integrated circuits (PICs), isolation is the only critical function that cannot yet be achieved by direct integration. While several techniques have been explored for integrating high-gyrotropy garnets into silicon-on-insulator PICs, this article focuses on sputter deposition, which is the most up-scalable process. High-gyrotropy Ce-doped yttrium iron garnet on nongarnet substrates can be made by sputter deposition with the use of garnet seed layers. Because these seed layers can compromise device performance, seed layer-free terbium iron garnet (TIG) has also recently been developed. Careful doping of TIG can produce Faraday rotations with opposite chiralities, which enable new device designs. Most optical isolator designs involve two-dimensional transverse magnetic-mode structures, such as interferometers or ring resonators, which employ nonreciprocal phase shift. One-dimensional Faraday rotation waveguides with quasi-phase matching have been shown to enable direct integration of isolators for all modes, including the transverse electric mode of lasers currently available for fully integrated PICs.