Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T05:11:56.278Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Thin films and microelectrode arrays for neuroprosthetics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 June 2012

Juan Ordonez ,
Martin Schuettler ,
Christian Boehler ,
Tim Boretius  and
Thomas Stieglitz
Juan Ordonez
Affiliation:
Department of Microsystems Engineering, Laboratory for Biomedical Microtechnology, University of Freiburg, Germany; [email protected]
Martin Schuettler
Affiliation:
Department of Microsystems Engineering, Laboratory for Biomedical Microtechnology, University of Freiburg, Germany; [email protected]
Christian Boehler
Affiliation:
Department of Microsystems Engineering, Laboratory for Biomedical Microtechnology, University of Freiburg, Germany; [email protected]
Tim Boretius
Affiliation:
Department of Microsystems Engineering, Laboratory for Biomedical Microtechnology, University of Freiburg, Germany; [email protected]
Thomas Stieglitz
Affiliation:
Department of Microsystems Engineering, Laboratory for Biomedical Microtechnology, University of Freiburg, Germany; [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Complex prosthetic limbs, the bionic eye, or brain-computer interfaces implement microelectrode arrays to connect the nervous system to an electronic device. The aim is to partly restore lost body functions or to gather bioelectrical activity from the nervous system. Microelectrode arrays are fabricated to have specific electrical and mechanical properties to match the biological requirements of the intended application. Polyimide and parylene-C are favorable polymers for substrate and insulation layers in thin-film applications. This article reviews the materials and the mechanical and electrical properties of electrode arrays. It emphasizes the often ignored but crucial influence of adhesion of the thin-film layers on the device’s longevity and reliability. Adhesion promotion techniques using layers of silicon carbide (SiC) are also discussed. Even though the main focus is on thin-film devices fabricated using traditional methods of micromachining based on lithography, an alternative to thin films, laser-patterned silicone/metal foil microelectrode arrays, is also presented. Characterization as well as application examples of these devices are also presented.

Type
Research Article
Information
MRS Bulletin , Volume 37 , Issue 6: Materials for neural interfaces , June 2012 , pp. 590 - 598
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Kern, H., Hofer, C., Mödlin, M., Forstner, C., Raschka-Högler, D., Mayr, W., Stöhr, H., Artif. Organs 26, 216 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.Brindley, G.S., Paraplegia 33, 5 (1995).Google Scholar
3.Donaldson, N., 2nd Vienna International Workshop on FES (1986), pp. 197–200.Google Scholar
4.Taylor, P.N., Burridge, J.H., Dunkerley, A.L., Wood, D.E., Norton, J.A., Singleton, C., Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 80, 1577 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Burridge, J.H., Haugland, M., Larsen, B., Svaneborg, N., Iversen, H.K., Christensen, P.B., Pickering, R.M., Sinkjaer, T., J. Rehabil. Med. 40, 873 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6.Burridge, J.H., Sinkjaer, T., Larsen, B., Haugland, M., Pickering, R.M., J. Rehabil. Med. 39, 212 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7.Clark, G., Cochlear Implants—Fundamentals and Applications (Springer, NY, 2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.Stieglitz, T., J. Neural Eng. 6 (065005) (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9.Kelly, S., Shire, D.B., Chen, J., Doyle, P., Gingerich, M.D., Drohan, W.A., Theogarajan, L.S., Cogan, S.F., Wyatt, J.L., Rizzo, J.F. III, 2nd International Symposium on Applied Sciences in Biomedical and Communication Technologies (2009), pp. 1–6.Google Scholar
10.Maynard, E.M., Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 3, 145 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11.Suaning, G.J., Lovell, N.H., Schindhelm, K., Coroneo, M.T., Aust. New Zeal. J. Ophthalmol. 26, 195 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Weiland, J., IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag. 25, 60 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Humayun, M.S., Dorn, J.D., Ahuja, A.K., Caspi, A., Filley, E., Dagnelie, G., Salzmann, J., Santos, A., Duncan, J., daCruz, L., Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (2009), p. 4566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Argus, II, Second Sight Medical Products, CA, USA; http://2-sight.eu/en/home-en.Google Scholar
15.Albert, G.C., Cook, C.M., Prato, F.S., Thomas, A.W., Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 33, 1042 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16.Groves, D.A., Brown, V.J., Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29, 493 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Hotujac, L., Rojnic Kuzman, M., Neuro Endocrinol. Lett. 29, 133 (2008).Google Scholar
18.Amar, A.P., Expert Rev. Neurother. 7, 1763 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Stieglitz, T., Int. J. Micro-Nano Scale Transport 1, 139 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20.Patil, P.G.Turner, D.A., Neurotherapeutics 5, 137 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21.Toledo, C., Leija, L., Munoz, R., Vera, A., Ramirez, A., Pan American Health Care Exchanges PAHCE 2009 (2009), pp. 104–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Donoghue, J.P., Nat. Neurosci. 5, 1085 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23.Stieglitz, T., Rubehn, B., Henle, C., Kisban, S., Herwik, S., Ruther, P., Schuettler, M., Prog. Brain Res. 175, 297 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24.Zhou, D.D., Greenbaum, E., Implantable Neural Prostheses 1: Devices and Applications (Springer, NY, 2009), vol. 1.Google Scholar
25.Zhou, D.D., Greenbaum, E., Implantable Neural Prostheses 2: Techniques and Engineering Approaches (Springer, NY, 2010), vol. 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Hassler, C., Boretius, T., Stieglitz, T., J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 49, 18 (2011).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Williams, D.F., Biomaterials 29, 2941 (2008).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Polikov, V.S., Tresco, P.A., Reichert, W.M., J. Neurosci. Methods 48 (148), 1 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Robblee, L.S., Cogan, S.F., Twardach, U.M., Rose, T.L., Jones, R.B., Kimball, A.G., Eleventh Quarterly Report, NIH-NINDS Contract No. NOl-NS-8–2313, (EIC Laboratories, Inc., Norwood, MA, 1991).Google Scholar
30.Robblee, L.S., Rose, T.L., Neural Prostheses—Fundamental Studies (Prentice Hall, NJ, 1990).Google Scholar
31.Schuettler, M., Henle, C., Ordonez, J.S., Meier, W., Guenther, T., Stieglitz, T., Proc. IEEE EMBC Annual International Conference (2008), pp. 3212–3215.Google Scholar
32.Schuettler, M., Pfau, D., Ordonez, J.S., Henle, C., Woias, P., Stieglitz, T., Proc. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Conference (2009), pp. 1612–1615.Google Scholar
33.Schuettler, M., Schroeer, S., Ordonez, J.S., Stieglitz, T., Proc. IEEE Neural Engineering Conference (2011), pp. 245–248.Google Scholar
34.Schuettler, M., Stiess, S., King, B.V., Suaning, G.J., J. Neural Eng. 2, 121 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Suaning, G.J., Schuettler, M., Ordonez, J.S., Lovell, N.H., Proc. IEEE Neural Engineering Conference (2007), pp. 5–8.Google Scholar
36.Green, R.A., Ordonez, J.S., Schuettler, M., Poole-Warren, L.A., Lovell, N.H., Suaning, G.J., J. Biomater. 31 (5), 886 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Henle, C., Hassler, C., Kohler, F., Schuettler, M., Stieglitz, T., Proc. Annual Conference of IEEE EMBS (2011), pp. 640–643.Google Scholar
38.Henle, C., Madjarow, A., Schuettler, M., Stieglitz, T., Biomed. Tech. 55, 229 (2010).Google Scholar
39.Henle, C., Raab, M., Cordeiro, J.G., Doostkam, S., Schulze-Bonhage, A., Stieglitz, T., Rickert, J., Biomed. Microdevices 13, 59 (2011).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
40.Henle, C., Schuettler, M., Ordonez, J.S., Stieglitz, T., Proc. IEEE EMBC Annual International Conference (2008), pp. 4208–4211.Google Scholar
41.Mortimer, J.T., “Final Report to the NIH-NINDS” (N01-NS-6–2346, 2000), pp. 1–30.Google Scholar
42.Rodger, D., Fong, A.J., Li, W., Sens. Actuators, B 132, 449 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Lago, N., Yoshida, K., Koch, K.P., Navarro, X., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 54, 281 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44.Rubehn, B., Bosman, C., Oostenveld, R., Fries, P., Stieglitz, T., J. Neural Eng. 6 (3), 036003 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45.Stieglitz, T., Acta Neurochir. Suppl. 97, 411 (2007).Google Scholar
46.Henle, C., Meier, W., Schuettler, M., Boretius, T., Stieglitz, T., Proc. World Congress on Biomedical Engineering (2009), pp. 100–103.Google Scholar
47.Naples, G.G., Mortimer, J.T., Scheiner, A., Sweeney, J.D., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 35, 905 (1988).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48.Stieglitz, T., Schuettler, M., Meyer, J.U., Proc. 21st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (1999), p. 487.Google Scholar
49.Kenney, L., Bultstra, G., Buschman, R., Taylor, P., Mann, G., Holsheimer, J., Nene, A., Tenniglo, M., van der Aa, H., Hobby, J., J. Artif. Organs 26, 267 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Polasek, K.H., Hoyen, H.A., Keith, M.W., Tyler, D.J., IEEE. Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 15, 76 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Delbeke, J., Wanet-Defalque, M.C., Gerard, B., Troosters, M., Michaux, G., J. Artif. Organs 26, 232 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52.Veraart, C., Wanet-Defalque, M.C., Gerard, B., Vanlierde, A., Delbeke, J., J. Artif. Organs 27, 996 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53.Veraart, C., Raftopoulos, C., Mortimer, J.T., Delbeke, J., Pins, D., Michaux, G., Vanlierde, A., Parrini, S., Wanet-Defalque, M.C., Brain Res. 813, 181 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54.Weiland, J., Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2009. EMBC 2009. Annual International Conference of the IEEE (2009), pp. 4140–4143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
55.Leuthardt, E.C., Schalk, G., Wolpaw, J.R., Ojemann, J.G., Moran, D.W., J. Neural Eng. 1, 63 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.Hetke, J.F., Williams, J.C., Pellinen, D.S., Vetter, R.J., Kipke, D.R., IEEE EMBS Conf. on Neural Engin. (2003), pp. 181–184.Google Scholar
57.Campbell, P.K., Jones, K.E., Huber, R.J., Horch, K.W., Normann, R.A., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 38, 758 (1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58.Kisban, S., Herwik, S., Seidl, K., Rubehn, B., Ulmilta, M.A., Fogassi, L., Stieglitz, T., Paul, O., Ruther, P., Proc. 29th Annual Int. Conf. on the IEEE Eng. in Medicine and Biology Soc. (2007), pp. 175–178.Google Scholar
59.Hosseini, N.H., Hoffmann, R., Kisban, S., Stieglitz, T., Paul, O., Ruther, P., Proc. 29th Annual Int. Conf. on the IEEE Eng. in Medicine and Biology Soc. (2007), pp. 4711–4714.Google Scholar
60.Kisban, S., Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, EMBS 2008. 30th Annual International Conference of the IEEE (2008), pp. 2016–2019.Google Scholar
61.Warwick, K., Gasson, M., Hutt, B., Goodhew, I., Kyberd, P., Andrews, B., Teddy, P., Shad, A., Arch. Neurol. 60 (10), 1369 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62.Hochberg, L.R., Serruya, M.D., Friehs, G.M., Mukand, J.A., Saleh, M., Caplan, A.H., Nature 442, 164 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63.Love, C.J., Cardiac Pacemakers and Defibrillators (Vadecum, Europe, 2006).Google Scholar
64.Cogan, S.F., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 57, 2313 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Gierthmuehlen, M., Ball, T., Wang, X., Henle, C., Raab, M., Stieglitz, T., Kaminsky, J., J. Neurosci. Methods 202, 77 (2011).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66.Oh, T., Gilad, O., Ghosh, A., Schuettler, M., Holder, D.S., Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 49, 593 (2011).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67.Tsai, D., Morley, J.W., Suaning, G.J., Lovell, N.H., J. Neurophysiol. 102 (5), 2982 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68.Stieglitz, T., Schuettler, M., Rubehn, B., International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER) (2011), pp. 529–533.Google Scholar
69.Richardson, J., Miller, R.R., Reichert, W.M., Biomaterials 14, 627 (1993).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.Wise, K.D., Angell, J.B., Starr, A., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 3, 238 (1970).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71.Maynard, E., Nordhausen, C., Normann, R., Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 102, 228 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72.Rousche, P.J., Normann, R.A., J. Neurosci. Methods 82, 1 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73.Lefurge, T., Goodall, E., Horch, K., Stensaas, L., Schoenberg, A., Ann. Biomed. Eng. 19, 197 (1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74.Gilletti, A., Muthuswamy, J., J. Neural Eng. 3, 189 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75.Shelby, J.E., Introduction to Glass Science and Technology (Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, 2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76.Alexander, G.B., Heston, W.M., Iler, R.K., J. Phys. Chem. 58 (6), 453 (1954).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77.Sweitzer, R., J. Bioact. Compat. Polym. 21 (1), 5 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78.Gonzalez, C., Rodriguez, M., J. Neurosci. Methods 72, 189 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
79.Ming-Wei, A.H., “Micromachined High-Density Electrodes for Retinal Prosthesis” (University of California, Los Angeles, 2003).Google Scholar
80.Shire, D.B., Kelly, S.K., Chen, J., Doyle, P., Gingerich, M.D., Cogan, S.F., Drohan, W.A., Mendoza, O., Theogarajan, L., Wyarr, J.L., Waler, J.H., Mason, J.-A.M., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 56, 2502 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
81.Navarro, X., Calvet, S., Rodríguez, F.J., Stieglitz, T., Blau, C., Buti, M., Valderrama, E., Meyer, J.U., J. Peripher. Nerv. Syst. 3, 91 (1998).Google Scholar
82.Rodríguez, F.J., Ceballos, D., Schuettler, M., Valderrama, E., Stieglitz, T., Navarro, X., J. Neurosci. Met. 98, 105 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
83.Ceballos, D., Valero, A., Valderrama, E., Schuettler, M., Stieglitz, T., Navarro, X., J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 60, 517 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84.Navarro, X., Krueger, T.B., Lago, N., Micera, S., Stieglitz, T., Dario, P., J. Periph. Nerv. Syst. 10, 229 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
85.Farina, D., Yoshida, K., Stieglitz, T., Koch, K.P., J. Appl. Physiol. 104, 821 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
86.Badia, J., Boretius, T., Udina, E., Stieglitz, T., Navarro, X., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 58, 2324 (2011).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87.Malay, K., Mittal, K.L., Polyimides: Fundamentals and Applications, 1st ed. (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996).Google Scholar
88.Ohya, H., Kudryavtsev, V.V., Semenova, S.I., Polyimide Membranes: Applications, Fabrications, and Properties (Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1996).Google Scholar
89.Massey, L.K., Permeability Properties of Plastics and Elastomers: A Guide to Packaging and Barrier Materials, 2nd ed. (William Andrew Publishing, NY, 2003); M. Ree, H. Han, C.C. Gryte, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 33, 505 (1995).Google Scholar
90.Buchhold, R., Nakladal, A., Gerlach, G., Sahre, K., Eichhorn, K.-J., Thin Solid Films 312, 232 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91.Buchhold, R., Nakladal, A., Gerlach, G., Sahre, K., MRS Proc. 511, 359 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92.Rubehn, B., Stieglitz, T., Biomaterials 31, 3449 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
93.DeIasi, R., Russell, J., J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 15, 2965 (1971).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
94.DeIasi, R., J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 16 (11), 2909 (1972).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95.Campbell, F.J., Brewer, A.K., Orr, R.J., Janicke, T.A., Bruning, A.M., Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena (1988), pp. 180–188.Google Scholar
96.Loeb, G.E., Peck, R.A., J. Neurosci. Methods 64 (1), 95 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
97.Hetke, J.F., Lund, J.L., Najafi, K., Wise, K.D., Anderson, D.J., IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 41 (4), 314 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
98.Huang, J., Cranford, R.J., Matsuura, T., Roy, C., J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 87, 2306 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
99.Russel, T.P., Gugger, H., Swalen, J.D., Polym. Sci. Ser. A Polym. Phys. 21, 1745 (1983).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100.Gattiglia, E., Russel, T.P., Polym. Sci. Ser. A Polym. Phys. 27, 2131 (1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101.Stieglitz, T., Beutel, H., Meyer, J.U., Sens. Actuators, A 60, 240 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
102.Stieglitz, T., Int. J. Micro-Nano Scale Transport 1 (2), 139 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
103.Rubehn, B., Wolff, S.B.E., Tovote, P., Schuettler, M., Lüthi, A., Stieglitz, T., 33rd IEEE EMBS Conference (2011).Google Scholar
104.Yasuda, H.K., Plasma Processes Polym. 2 (4), 293 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
105.Murray, S., Hillman, C., J. Electron. Packag. 126, 390 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106.Mittal, K., Electrocomponent Sci. Technol. 3, 21 (1976).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
107.Comyn, J., Adhesion Science (Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, 1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108.Bruch, L.W., Cole, M.W., Zaremba, E., Physical Adsorption: Forces and Phenomena (Dover Publications, NY, 2007).Google Scholar
109.Mittal, K.L., Adhesion Measurement of Films and Coatings (VSP, The Netherlands, 2001), p. 456.Google Scholar
110.Ohring, M., Materials Science of Thin Films, 2nd ed. (Academic Press, NY, 2011).Google Scholar
111.Boretius, T., Jurzinsky, T., Koehler, C., Kerzenmacher, S., Hillebrecht, H., Stieglitz, T., 33rd Annual International Conference of the IEEE EMBS (2011).Google Scholar
112.Schuettler, M., Stieglitz, T., 7th Ann. Conf. of the IFESS (2002), pp. 228–230.Google Scholar
113.Cogan, S.F., Edell, D.J., Guzelian, A.A., Ping Liu, Y., Edell, R., J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 67 (3), 856 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
114.Green, R., Lovell, N., Wallace, G., Biomaterials 29, 3393 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
115.Green, R.A., Devillaine, F., Dodds, C., Matteucci, P., Chen, S., Byrnes-Preston, P., Poole-Warren, L.A., Lovell, N.H., Suaning, G.J., Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) 6769 (2010).Google Scholar
116.Ordonez, J.S., Boehler, C., Schuettler, M., Stieglitz, T., Proc. IEEE EMBC (2012).Google Scholar
117.White, R.L., Roberts, L.A., Cotter, N.E., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 405, 183 (1983).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
118.Woodruff, D.P., The Chemical Physics of Solid Surfaces (Elsevier, NY, 2002).Google Scholar
119.Gnanou, Y., Fontanille, M., Chemistry of Polymers (Wiley, NJ, 2008).Google Scholar
120.Sacher, E., Susko, J.R., J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 23, 2355 (1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
121.Sacher, E., Susko, J.R., J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 26, 679 (1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
122.Girardeaux, C., Druet, E., Demoncy, P., Delamar, M., J. Electron. Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. 74, 57 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
123.Egitto, F.D., Matienzo, L.J., Blackwell, K.J., Knoll, A.R., J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 8 (4), 411 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
124.Girardeaux, C., Druet, E., Demoncy, P., Delamar, M., J. Electron. Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. 70, 11 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
125.Ham, D.J., Lee, J.S., Energies 2, 873 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
126.Harris, G.L., Properties of Silicon Carbide (INSPEC, The Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1995).Google Scholar
127.Furman, B.K., Childs, K.D., Clearfield, H., Davis, R., Purushothaman, S., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 10 (4), 2913 (1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
128.Chou, T.C., J. Mater. Sci. 26, 1412 (1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
129.Ordonez, J., Boehler, C., Schuettler, M., Stieglitz, T., 33rd International IEEE EMBS Conference (2011).Google Scholar
130.Ordonez, J.S., Boehler, C., Schuettler, M., Stieglitz, T., e-Proc. MRS Spring Conference (2012).Google Scholar
131.Hassler, C., von Metzen, R.P., J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B 93, 266 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
132.Chang, J.H.-C, Lu, B., Tai, Y.-C., Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference (TRANSDUCERS) (2011), pp. 390–393.Google Scholar
133.Schuettler, M., Gross, M., Staiger, A., Katzenberg, F., Stieglitz, T., Proc. of the 23rd Ann. Internat. Conf. of the IEEE EMBS 1, 769 (2001).Google Scholar
134.Schuettler, M., Vanhoestenberghe, A., Saeidi, N., Liu, X., Evans, J., Colinge, C., Demosthenous, A., Donaldson, N., 33rd Annual International Conference of the IEEE EMBS (2011), pp. 2965–2968.Google Scholar