² Key, V. O., The Technique of Political Graft in the United States, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1936.Google Scholar

³ Huntington, S. P., Political Order in Changing Society, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1968, p. 71.Google Scholar

⁴ ‘Partitocrazia’ in Bobbio, N. et al (eds), Dizionario di politico, UTET, Turin, 1990, pp. 774–777, p. 774.Google Scholar

⁵ Galli, G., Il bipartitismo imperfetto. Comunisti e democristiani in Italia, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1966; Alberoni, F. (ed.), L'attivista di partito, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1967; Poggi, G. (ed.), L'organizzazione partitica del Pci e della Dc, II Mulino, Bologna, 1968.Google Scholar

⁶ The DC is defined as an institutional party precisely because it is within the institutions of the state that it conducts its interest mediation.Google Scholar

⁷ Duverger, M., Les partis politiques, Colin, Paris, 1961.Google Scholar

⁸ The waning of Opposition in Parliamentary Regimes’, Social Research, XXIV, 1957, pp. 127–156.Google Scholar

⁹ Sapelli, G., Cleptocrazia. 11 ‘meccanismo unico’ della corruzione tra economia e politica, Feltrinelli, Milan, 1994, p. 121.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Ibid., my emphasis.Google Scholar

¹¹ Davigo, Piercamillo, in Panorama, 28 March 1993, p. 34.Google Scholar

¹² della Porta, D., ‘Corruzione e carriere politiche: immagine dei “politici d'affari”’, in Stato e Mercato, 34, 1992, pp. 35–61.Google Scholar

¹³ Cited in Andreoli, M., Andavamo in Piazza Duomo, Sperling and Kupfer, Milan, 1993, p. 144.Google Scholar

¹⁴ della Porta, D., ‘Les circles vicieux de la corruption en Italie’ in della Porta, D. and Mény, Y. (eds), Corruption et démocratie, La Découverte, Paris, 1994. English edition, Political Corruption and Democracy, Pinter, London, 1995.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Pizzorno, A., ‘La corruzione nel sistema politica’, introduction to della Porta, D., Lo scambio occulto, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1992; della Porta, D., he circles vicieux ; Pizzorno, A. and della Porta, D., ‘Geschäftspolitiker in Italien: Überlegungen im Anschluß an eine Studie über politische Korruption’, in Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpyschologie, 45, 3, 1993, pp. 439–464.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Cited in Andreoli, , Andavamo, p. 37.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Ibid., p.21.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid., p. 29.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Chiesa, Mario in ibid., p. 35.Google Scholar

²⁰ Porta, Della, Lo scambio, p. 202; Andreoli, , Andavamo, p. 168.Google Scholar

²¹ Porta, Delia, Lo scambio, pp. 238–243.Google Scholar

²² Chiesa, Mario in Andreoli, , Andavamo, p. 33.Google Scholar

²³ Tribunale di Savona, Sentenza di rinvio a giudizio, n. 1019/81 RGPM, 1984, pp. 123–145.Google Scholar

²⁴ Cited in Andreoli, , Andavamo, p. 20.Google Scholar

²⁵ Ibid., p. 128.Google Scholar

²⁶ Ibid., pp. 35–36, emphasis added.Google Scholar

²⁷ Porta, Delia, Lo scambio, pp. 211–250; della Porta, D. and Vannucci, A., Amministrazione pubblica e corruzione in Italia: risorse, meccanismi e attori, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1994, ch. 10.Google Scholar

²⁸ According to the classic definition (Katz, R. S., ‘Party Government: A Rationalistic Conception’, in Castles, F. G. and Wildenmann, R. (eds), Visions and Reality of Party Government, de Gruyter, Berlin, 1986, p. 43.) for there to be party government at least three conditions are necessary: ‘Firstly, all major governmental decisions must be taken by people chosen in elections conducted along party lines, or by individuals appointed by and responsible to such people […] Secondly, policy must be decided within the governing party, when there is a ‘monocolour’ government, or by negotiation among parties when there is a coalition […] Thirdly, the highest officials, e.g. cabinet ministers and especially the prime minister, must be selected within their parties and be responsible to the people through their parties’.Google Scholar

²⁹ See the classic study of LaPalombara, J., Interest Groups in Italian Politics, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1964.Google Scholar

³⁰ ‘Regolatori sregolati: partiti e governo dei partiti’, in Lange, P. and Regini, M. (eds), Stato e regolazione sociale: nuove prospettive sul caso italiano, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1987, p. 60.Google Scholar

³¹ Cited in Panorama, 28 March 1993, p. 76, emphasis added. Similarly, of his nomination as a member of the ENEL board Valerio Bitetto declared: ‘I was proposed by the PSI for that position and on the occasion I met with Craxi in person, who literally said to me, “don't sit there keeping the seat warm”: in other words, he told me that I had to use my position to get votes and money for the party’, in Panorama 1993, cit., p. 51.Google Scholar

³² For example, on his role in socializing other administrators in the system of corruption, the ex-mayor of Reggio Calabria has written: ‘Once, talking of people who accepted bribes, an entrepreneur reasoned: for politicians money is like taking drugs. After you take it once you can't do without it. It's difficult the first time. Then, it becomes like heroin and you go and demand it. One of the people I initiated into taking mazzette afterwards started to make small deals of his own, gli “assolo” [solos] as they're called in the jargon. It was the businessmen who let me know: direct accusations no, but one wisecrack after another’. Licandro, A. and Varano, A., La città dolente. Confessioni di un sindaco corrotto, Einaudi, Turin, 1993, pp. 47–8.Google Scholar

³³ Tribunale di Bari, Sentenza di rinvio a giudizio, n. 7641/80 RGPM, 1985, p. 42.Google Scholar

³⁴ Cited in Nascimbeni, E. and Pamparana, A., Le mani pulite, 1992, p. 147, my emphasis.Google Scholar

³⁵ In Panorama 1993, cit., p. 27, emphasis added.Google Scholar

³⁶ Procura delta Repubblica di Milano, Requisitoria del Pubblico-Ministero in procedimenlo penale n. 990/83, 1983, pp. 125–6.Google Scholar

³⁷ Tribunale di Catania, Sentenza di secondo grado, n. 5463, 1991, p. 104.Google Scholar

³⁸ Pizzorno, , La corruzione, pp. 32–33.Google Scholar

³⁹ Vannucci, A., ‘Scambi e collusioni: analisi di un caso’, in Il Progetto, 74, 1993, p. 85.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Cited in Carlucci, A., Tangentomani, Baldini and Castoldi, Milan, 1992, p. 74.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Pizzorno, , ‘La corruzione’, p. 31.Google Scholar

⁴² Ibid., p. 27.Google Scholar

⁴³ Porta, Delia, Les circles, 1994.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Italy has long been considered the paradigmatic case of polarized pluralism, characterized by a plurality of political parties, the existence of anti-system parties, a division into two hostile ideological camps and a dynamic of centrifugal competition, Sartori, G., Teoria dei partiti e caso italiano, Sugarco, Milan, 1982.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Pizzorno, , ‘La corruzione’, p. 27.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Noted, for example, by Dente, Bruno and Regonini, Gloria, ‘Politica e politiche in Italia’, in Lange, P. and Regini, M. (eds), Stato e regolazione sociale, pp. 83–121.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ ‘I due poteri dei partiti’, in Politico del diritto, 2, 1971, pp. 197–209.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Pizzorno, A., ‘Le difficoltà del consociativismo’, in Le radici della politica assoluta e altri saggi, Feltrinelli, Milan, 1993, pp. 285–313, pp. 304–5.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Licandro, and Varano, , La città, pp. 122–23.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Porta, Della and Vannucci, , Amministrazione pubblica.Google Scholar