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⁴⁵ Ibid., 294.

⁴⁶ Ibid., 293. All italicization, unless otherwise noted, is original.

⁴⁷ Ibid., 241. “Unworking Shopkeepers” is likely a reference to private merchants who stored and sold goods produced by independent laborers.

⁴⁸ Ibid., 237.

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⁵⁴ While the water one draws from a fountain is rightfully his property, the “Water running in the Fountain [is] every ones.” See Locke, John, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Laslett, Peter (Cambridge, 1988; first published 1689), 288–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁶ Ibid., 275.

⁵⁷ Ibid., 225.

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⁶² Ibid., emphasis mine.

⁶³ Wood, John Locke, 46.

⁶⁴ Ibid., 46–8, 111.

⁶⁵ Locke, Locke on Money, 1: 231, 2: 493–5; 1: 276–7, 2: 436.

⁶⁶ Ibid., 2: 486. On Locke's investment in the silk trade see Haley, Kenneth Harold Dobson, The First Earl of Shaftesbury (Oxford, 1968), 228Google Scholar; Peck, Linda Levy, Consuming Splendor: Society and Culture in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 2005), 109Google Scholar. In Some Considerations, Locke's condemnation of luxury with respect to consumer spending was reserved to foreign articles such as those imported to England from Japan and China. See Locke, John, The Works of John Locke, 12th edn, vol. 4 (London, 1824), 54–9, 72–3, 163–4Google Scholar. See also Vaughn, Karen, John Locke, Economist and Social Scientist (Chicago, 1980), 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶⁸ Peck, Consuming Splendor, 19.

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⁷⁵ See Mark Goldie's introduction to Locke, “For a General Naturalisation,” 321.

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⁷⁸ Ibid., 323; emphasis mine.

⁷⁹ Locke, Two Treatises, 301.

⁸⁰ Ibid., 299; Locke, “Understanding,” 261.

⁸¹ Locke, “For a General Naturalisation,” 323.

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⁸⁵ Ibid., 325. On skilled Huguenots seeking asylum in England after 1685 see Hintermaier, John M., “The First Modern Refugees? Charity, Entitlement, and Persuasion in the Huguenot Immigration of the 1680s,” Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies 32/3 (2000), 429–49, at 434CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On foreign skilled workers in England's textile industry see Peck, Consuming Splendor, 20, 108, 110. See also Smith, Brian, “Hands, Not Lands: John Locke, Immigration, and ‘the Great Art of Government’,” History of Political Thought 39/3 (2018), 465–90Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Locke, “For a General Naturalisation,” 325.

⁸⁷ Kriedte, “The Origins,” 34. From 1699 to 1701, 81.2 percent of England's total exports were manufactured goods. Ibid., 36.

⁸⁸ Locke, “For a General Naturalisation,” 326.

⁸⁹ In 1696, Poor Law reform became the focus of the newly founded Board of Trade. See Macfarlane, Stephen, “Social Policy and the Poor in the Later Seventeenth Century,” in Beier, A. L. and Finlay, Roger, eds., London, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis (London, 1986), 252–77, at 261Google Scholar.

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⁹⁵ On the hostility of English towns to early capitalism see Dyer, Christopher, “Were There Any Capitalists in Fifteenth-Century England?”, in Kermode, Jennifer, ed., Enterprise and Individuals in Fifteenth-Century England (Wolfeboro, 1991), 1–23, at 11Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ Locke, “Essay on the Poor Law,” 195–8. While Locke gives urban corporations more autonomy in executing his policy (195–6), he is stricter regarding the trades and skills that should be promoted in the countryside, including roughing, spinning, and weaving wool (192–3).

⁹⁷ As Stephen Macfarlane notes, the board's final report to the Lords Justices “made no mention of the City or the suburbs.” See Macfarlane, “Social Policy and the Poor,” 261.

⁹⁸ Locke, “Essay on the Poor Law,” 193.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 194, 192.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 192. Costs such as the salaries of teachers, guardians, and overseers would be deducted from funds raised by the poor relief tax.

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¹⁰³ Tully, An Approach to Political Philosophy, 65.

¹⁰⁴ According to H. R. Bourne, the report was “substantially altogether Locke's work.” See Locke, “Encouragement of Irish Linen Manufacture,” 363.

¹⁰⁵ Locke learned much about Ireland's linen trade by corresponding with his Irish friend William Molyneux. See de Beer, E. S., ed., The Correspondence of John Locke, 8 vols. (Oxford, 1976–89), 5: 701–5; 6: 219–22, 229–31Google Scholar.

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¹⁰⁸ Ibid., 366–7.

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¹¹⁹ Thompson, “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism,” 61.

¹²⁰ Locke, Two Treatises, 289.

¹²¹ Mann, The Cloth Industry, 98. By the late 1600s, the increase in supply of finished and colored fabric in England demanded greater quantities of skilled labor. See Ramsay, The Wiltshire Woollen Industry, 130; Kriedte, Medick, and Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization, 95; Hudson, “Proto-industrialization in England,” 54.

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¹²⁹ Locke, Some Considerations, 222. I thank the anonymous reviewers, Duncan Kelly, and Adom Getachew for their helpful comments regarding Ireland's place in Locke's theory of imperial commerce.

¹³⁰ Ibid., 223. For Locke, conquerors have no right over the property, goods, money, and estate of the conquered. See Locke, Two Treatises, 390.

¹³¹ While Locke proposed establishing manufactures in Virginia in 1697, this was a strategy to increase the colony's wealth by attracting skilled English emigrants rather than a comprehensive scheme for industrial development. See Ashcraft, Richard, “Political Theory and Political Reform: John Locke's Essay on Virginia,” Western Political Quarterly 22/4 (1969), 742–58, at 747CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In suggesting that manufactures were also important to the colonies, Locke's ideas about imperial policy were uncommon at the time. See Reinert, Sophus, Translating Empire: Emulation and the Origins of Political Economy (Cambridge, 2011), 111CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁵¹ Ibid., 101–10. Cary backed the revocation of the Cattle Acts banning Irish cattle exports to England.

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¹⁵⁴ Davenant, Discourses on the Publick Revenues, and on the Trade of England (London, 1698), 225–7.

¹⁵⁵ Locke, “Encouragement of Irish Linen Manufacture.” For Locke's correspondence with Molyneux on the Irish linen trade see de Beer, The Correspondence of John Locke, 5: 701–5; 6: 4–9, 189–93, 219–22, 229–32, 292–7. On Locke, England, and Irish linen see Hont, “Free Trade,” 79–90; Armitage, “The Political Economy of Britain and Ireland,” 239–41.

¹⁵⁶ Locke, “Encouragement of Irish Linen Manufacture,” 365–9.

¹⁵⁷ Ibid., 367–72. On rewards and punishments in Locke's thinking about labor see Tully, An Approach to Political Philosophy, 64–8.

¹⁵⁸ Locke neither supported a union with Ireland nor considered it a kingdom (such as Scotland). See Armitage, “The Political Economy of Britain and Ireland,” 240–43; Armitage, Ideological Origins, 156–7.

¹⁵⁹ Although Locke never endorsed Ireland's full economic independence, as Daniel Defoe, Thomas Prior, and Arthur Dobbs did, they all agreed that England's development of Irish consumer industries could benefit England and Ireland alike. See Livesey, Civil Society and Empire, 68–9.

¹⁶⁰ Armitage, “John Locke,” 90–93.

¹⁶¹ Bell, Reordering the World, 91.

¹⁶² Tully, James, Public Philosophy in a New Key: Imperialism and Civic Freedom, vol. 2 (Cambridge, 2008), 195–221CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mantena, Karuna, Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism (Princeton, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bell, Reordering the World, 107–10.

¹⁶³ Prasannan Parthasarathi, “Trade and Industry in the Indian Subcontinent, 1750–1913,” in Horn, Rosenband, and Smith, Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution, 271–90, at 272.

¹⁶⁴ Tully, “Lineages of Contemporary Imperialism,” 10–11.

¹⁶⁵ Berg, The Age of Manufactures, 66, 74; Kriedte, Medick, and Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization, 17.

¹⁶⁶ See Freudenberger, Herman and Redlich, Fritz, “The Industrial Development of Europe: Reality, Symbols, Images,” Kyklos 17/3 (1964), 372–400, at 386–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tribe, Keith, Genealogies of Capitalism (London, 1981), 107–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berg, Maxine, Hudson, Pat, and Sonenscher, Michael, eds., Manufacture in Town and Country before the Factory (Cambridge, 2002; first published 1983)Google Scholar; Freeman, Joshua, Behemoth: A History of the Factory and the Making of the Modern World (New York, 2018)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁷ Locke, Two Treatises, 297–8.

¹⁶⁸ For an insightful reading of this passage as evidence of Locke's espousal of increasing “hands” (working population) over “lands” (territory) see Smith, “Hands, Not Lands.”

¹⁶⁹ Milton, John, Paradise Lost (Oxford, 2005; first published 1667), 112Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁰ Blake, William, Milton: A Poem in 2 Books, ed. Maclagan, E. D. and Russel, A. B. (London, 1907; first published 1804–10), xixGoogle Scholar.