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The Early Life of Marx's “Mode of Production”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 November 2019

Sarah Johnson
Sarah Johnson*
Affiliation:
Society of Fellows, University of Chicago
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article reexamines Marx's early conception of history by returning to his 1845–6 manuscripts, long known as The German Ideology. On conventional interpretations of these manuscripts, Marx sought to explain the entire historical process through a theory of the systematic development of productive forces. This article reveals that concern to be an artifact of subsequent editorial practices and argues that a different concern animated the manuscripts for Marx himself—namely to grasp the nature of individual epochs, particularly the present one, which he doubted that a generalized theory of history could help him to do. In “Saint Max,” perhaps the most neglected of these early manuscripts, Marx developed the concept of a “mode of production” into a historical lens, one that could aid the work of social critique by bringing into focus how the present is made and might be made anew.

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Modern Intellectual History , Volume 18 , Issue 2 , June 2021 , pp. 349 - 378
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

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References

1 See Pascal, R., “Introduction,” in Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich, The German Ideology, Parts I and III, ed. Pascal, R. (New York, 1939), ix–xviii, at ixGoogle Scholar.

2 The quotation comes from Marx's retrospective account of two unnamed volumes that he and Engels wrote in Brussels. See Marx, Karl, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), in Karl Marx, Frederick Engels: Collected Works (MECW), 50 vols. (Moscow, London, and New York, 1975–2004), 29: 261–417, at 264Google Scholar. The claims that are presented in this paragraph can be found, in full or in part, alongside numerous editions of The German Ideology, e.g. Adoratskij, V., “Einleitung,” in Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels: Historisch-kritische Gesamtausgabe (MEGA), Section I, vol. 5 (Berlin, 1932), ix–xix, at ix–xiGoogle Scholar; Pascal, “Introduction,” xiv–xv and xvii; Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus beim ZK der KPdSU, “Vorwort,” in Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich, Werke, vol. 3 (Berlin, 1958), v–xii, at vi–vii, xiGoogle Scholar; Lev Churbanov, “Preface,” in MECW, 5: xiii–xxvi, at xv, xvii, and xxv; Tucker, Robert, ed., The Marx–Engels Reader (New York, 1978), 146Google Scholar. See also Osborne, Peter, How to Read Marx (London, 2005), 35–6Google Scholar.

3 See, respectively, McLellan, David, ed., Karl Marx: Selected Writings (Oxford, 1977), 159Google Scholar; and Arthur, C. J., “Editor's Introduction,” in Marx, Karl and Engels, Frederick, The German Ideology, Part One, ed. Arthur, C. J. (New York, 1970), 4–34, at 4Google Scholar.

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5 Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels Gesamtausgabe (MEGA 2), Section I, vol. 5 (Berlin, 2017)Google Scholar. Early versions of some items in this volume were published in Taubert, Inge and Pelger, Hans, eds., Marx-Engels-Jahrbuch 2003 (Berlin, 2004), 6–137Google Scholar. For an English translation and alternative presentation of some of the contents of the Jahrbuch see Carver, Terrell and Blank, Daniel, eds., Marx and Engels's German Ideology Manuscripts: Presentation and Analysis of the “Feuerbach chapter” (New York, 2014), 34–381Google Scholar. For a very critical assessment of how the manuscripts were ultimately presented in the MEGA 2 I/5, see Carver, Terrell, “Whose Hand Is the Last Hand? The New MEGA Edition of ‘The German Ideology’,” New Political Science 41/1 (2019), 140–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Inge Taubert and Hans Pelger, “Einführung,” in Marx-Engels-Jahrbuch 2003, 5*–28*, at 7*–8*; Carver, Terrell, “The German Ideology Never Took Place,” History of Political Thought 31/1 (2010), 107–27Google Scholar; Carver and Blank, Political History, 1–2; Pagel, Ulrich, Hubmann, Gerald, and Weckwerth, Christine, MEGA 2, I/5: Apparat (Berlin, 2017), 725–6, 832Google Scholar.

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8 Carver, “The German Ideology,” 112; Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 784. On the origin of the title The German Ideology see Carver, “The German Ideology,” 110–15.

9 Carver and Blank, Political History, 79–81; Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 833.

10 Here I am drawing upon D. F. McKenzie's suggestion that “forms effect meaning” and Roger Chartier's engagements with this idea, particularly his claim that new publication forms can change what readers expect from texts, along with how they read, interpret, and use them. See McKenzie, D. F., Bibliography and the Sociology of Texts (London, 1986), 4Google Scholar; Chartier, Roger, The Order of Books, trans. Cochrane, Lydia G. (Stanford, 1994), 1–23Google Scholar; Chartier, , On the Edge of the Cliff: History, Language, and Practices, trans. Cochrane, Lydia G. (Baltimore, 1997), 81–9Google Scholar.

11 The quotation is from Churbanov, “Preface,” xviii.

12 E.g. Mehring, Franz, Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (1918), trans. Fitzgerald, Edward (Ann Arbor, 1973), 110Google Scholar; Berlin, Isaiah, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (London, 1939), 125–6Google Scholar; McLellan, David, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought (New York, 1973), 148–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sperber, Jonathan, Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life (New York, 2013), 166–7Google Scholar; and Jones, Gareth Stedman, Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion (Cambridge, 2016), 189–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Sperber and Stedman Jones acknowledge Stirner's influence on Marx but they do not consider the place of “Saint Max” within Marx's intellectual development. Sidney Hook does not either, despite his lengthy discussion of the manuscript in From Hegel to Marx: Studies in the Intellectual Development of Karl Marx (New York, 1936), 163, 173–85Google Scholar. In contrast, Sven-Eric Liedman takes up this question in A World to Win: The Life and Works of Karl Marx (2015), trans. Skinner, Jeffrey N. (London, 2018), 182–91Google Scholar. Other efforts to consider the significance of “Saint Max” include Arvon, H., “Une polémique inconnue: Marx et Stirner,” Les temps modernes 7/71 (1951), 509–36Google Scholar; Lobkowicz, N., “Karl Marx and Max Stirner,” in Adelmann, Frederick J., ed., Demythologizing Marxism (Dordrecht, 1969), 64–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Thomas, Paul, “Karl Marx and Max Stirner,” Political Theory 3/2 (1975), 159–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Taubert, Inge, “Wie entstand die Deutsche Ideologie von Karl Marx und Friedrich Engels? Neue Einsichten, Probleme und Streitpunkte,” in Karl-Marx-Haus, Studienzentrum, ed., Studien zu Marx’ erstem Paris-Aufenthalt und zur Entstehung der Deutsche Ideologie (Trier, 1990), 9–87, at 51–87Google Scholar; Browning, Gary K., “The German Ideology: The Theory of History and the History of Theory,” History of Political Thought 14/3 (1993), 455–73Google Scholar.

13 Liedman, World to Win, 191; Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 728, 754–5.

14 Liedman, World to Win, 184.

15 E.g. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “III. Sankt Max,” in MEGA 2, I/5: 165–511, at 410; Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The German Ideology, in MECW, 5: 19–539, at 355. Subsequent references to Marx's 1845–6 manuscripts will cite the relevant document in the MEGA 2 I/5 and provide a parenthetical citation to MECW 5, the source of all translations unless otherwise noted.

16 Ryazanov published “I. Feuerbach” in Russian first, in 1924, and in German in 1926: Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich, “I. Feuerbach: Gegensatz von materialisticher und idealistischer Anschauung,” in Rjazanov, D., ed., Marx-Engels Archiv: Zeitschrift des Marx-Engels-Instituts in Moskau, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main, 1926), 233–306Google Scholar. My understanding of Ryazanov's work on “I. Feuerbach” is indebted to Carver and Blank, Political History, 17–27. On Ryazanov's arrest see also Beecher, Jonathan and Fomichev, Valerii N., “French Socialism in Lenin's and Stalin's Moscow: David Riazanov and the French Archive of the Marx–Engels Institute,” Journal of Modern History 78/1 (2006), 119–43, at 140–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 The details in this paragraph and the next are from D. Rjazanov, “Einführung des Herausgebers,” in Marx-Engels Archiv, 205–21, at 217–21. I clarify and supplement Ryazanov's account with physical descriptions of the sheets and pages. For these see Karl Marx/Friedrich Engels Papers, A 11, International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam, at http://hdl.handle.net/10622/ARCH00860.

18 See Rjazanov, “Einführung,” 219–20.

19 The following account is drawn from Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 737–56, 794, 832–54; Carver and Blank, Political History, 73, 144–8; Carver, “The German Ideology,” 115–20.

20 Scholars have offered competing hypotheses about why Marx and Engels removed the two sets of sheets from “Saint Max,” but there is no conclusive evidence that explains the decision. Compare Carver and Blank, Political History, 145; and Carver, Terrell, “‘Roughing It’: The ‘German Ideology’ ‘Main Manuscript’,” History of Political Thought 36/4 (2015), 700–25, at 707Google Scholar; with Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 839–41.

21 Golowina, “Das Projekt der Vierteljahrsschrift,” 267; Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 759–62.

22 Marx to Heinrich Heine, 24 March 1845, in MECW, 38: 30–31, at 31.

23 Golowina, “Das Projekt der Vierteljahrsschrift,” 260–61; Beutin, Wolfgang, Ehlert, Klaus, Emmerich, Wolfgang, Hoffacker, Helmut, Lutz, Bernd, Meid, Volker, Schnell, Ralf, Stein, Peter, and Stephan, Inge, A History of German Literature, 4th edn, trans. Krojzl, Clare (London, 1993), 265–6Google Scholar; Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 735.

24 Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 735–7.

25 Ibid.

26 Ibid., 740, 745–6.

27 Ibid., 740–44, 802, 847–8; Carver and Blank, Political History, 91.

28 Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 976, 985.

29 Ibid., 848.

30 Marx and Engels, “I. Feuerbach,” 303 n.

31 Pagel, Hubmann, and Weckwerth, Apparat, 848.

32 See Czóbel, Ernst, “Stand und Perspektiven der Herausgabe der MEGA (März/April 1931),” in Vollgraf, Carl-Erich, Sperl, Richard, and Hecker, Rolf, eds., David Borisovič Rjazanov und die erste MEGA (Berlin, 1997), 132–43, at 136–7Google Scholar; Adoratskij, “Einleitung,” xix.

33 V. Adoratskij, “2. Die Richtlinien für die Redigierung der Manuskripte,” in MEGA, I/5: 561–4, at 561. See also Carver and Blank, Political History, 33–6.

34 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Die Deutsche Ideologie, in MEGA, I/5: 1–528, at 9–10. See also Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “I. Feuerbach. [1. Kapitelanfang],” in MEGA 2, I/5: 4–7, at 7 (MECW, 5: 30).

35 Marx and Engels, Deutsche Ideologie, 10. See also Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “I. Feuerbach. [2. Kapitelanfang],” in MEGA 2, I/5: 8–11, at 8 (MECW, 5: 31).

36 Marx and Engels, Deutsche Ideologie, 10–11; Marx and Engels, “[2. Kapitelanfang],” 8–11 (MECW, 5: 31–2).

37 Marx and Engels, Deutsche Ideologie, 11; Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “3) [Fragment],” in MEGA 2, I/5: 129–34, at 129 (MECW, 5: 32, punctuation modified).

38 See Marx and Engels, Deutsche Ideologie, 39–51; Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “[Ms-S. 40–[73]. Frühe Fassung von III. Sankt Max. Abhandlung 2 sowie Fragmente und Notizen],” in MEGA 2, I/5: 69–123, at 71–89 (MECW, 5: 64–74).

39 Adoratskij, “Einleitung,” x.

40 On this discovery see Carver and Blank, Political History, 63–7. Editions in which fragment “3)” is sutured to the discussion of premises include Marx and Engels, Werke, vol. 3, 21; Tucker, Marx–Engels Reader, 150; McLellan, Selected Writings, 161.

41 See Marx and Engels, German Ideology, 30 n. C, 32.

42 See Churbanov, “Preface,” xix.

43 Quoted in ibid., xviii. See also Marx and Engels, “[Ms-S. 40–[73]],” 90.

44 Churbanov, “Preface,” xviii.

45 See Brenner, Robert, “Bourgeois Revolution and Transition to Capitalism,” in Beier, A. L., Cannadine, David, and Rosenheim, James M., eds., The First Modern Society: Essays in English History in Honour of Lawrence Stone (Cambridge, 1989), 271–304, at 275–6, 280–81Google Scholar; Wood, Ellen Meiksins, Democracy against Capitalism: Renewing Historical Materialism (Cambridge, 1995), 4, 110, 120, 147–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar, quotation at 150. Here and below, all emphasis is in the original.

46 Brenner, “Bourgeois Revolution,” 272; Wood, Democracy against Capitalism, 147. The quoted term is Wood's.

47 Brenner, “Bourgeois Revolution,” 279–80; Wood, Democracy against Capitalism, 147–9.

48 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “[Ms-S. 1–29. Frühe Fassung einer Bauer-Kritik],” in MEGA 2, I/5: 16–59, at 45 (MECW, 5: 53).

49 Churbanov, “Preface,” xxi.

50 Wood, Democracy against Capitalism, 149.

51 Ibid., 5, 150–51; Brenner, “Bourgeois Revolution,” 272–3.

52 Hobsbawm, E. J., “Introduction,” in Marx, Karl, Pre-capitalist Economic Formations, trans. Cohen, Jack (New York, 1965), 9–65, at 27Google Scholar. For a more recent example see Stedman Jones, Karl Marx, 200.

53 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “5. [Fragment],” in MEGA 2, I/5: 135–9, at 135–6 (MECW, 5: 36).

54 Ibid., 136–9 (MECW, 5: 37, translation modified).

55 Howard, Luke, The Climate of London, 2nd edn, vol. 1 (London, 1833), lxvGoogle Scholar; Paxton, Joseph, Paxton's Magazine of Botany, vol. 6 (London, 1839), 122Google Scholar; Aran, F. A., “Recherches sur les signes et le diagnostic de l'insuffisance des valvules de l'aorte,” Archives générales de médicine 3/15 (1842), 265–90, at 277Google Scholar; Arnold, Thomas, Observations on the Nature, Kinds, Causes, and Prevention of Insanity, 2nd edn, vol. 2 (London, 1806), 71Google Scholar.

56 Sigwart, Georg Karl Ludwig, “Bemerkungen über einige Gegenstände der thierischen Chemie,” Deutsches Archiv für die Physiologie 1/2 (1815), 202–20, at 205Google Scholar.

57 Owgan, Henry, Miscellanea Homerica (Dublin, 1840), 242, 233–4Google Scholar; Fétis, M. F. J., “Revue succincte de la musique,” Revue musicale 5 (1829), 1–14, at 8Google Scholar.

58 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, Werke, vol. 10/1 (Berlin, 1835), 52–3, and vol. 10/2 (Berlin, 1837), 193–4Google Scholar.

59 Marx never finished this work and no draft survives. See Rose, Margaret A., Marx's Lost Aesthetic: Karl Marx and the Visual Arts (Cambridge, 1984), 55–69Google Scholar.

60 Marx's Paris notebooks are in MEGA 2, Section IV, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1981), 283–579, and MEGA 2, Section IV, vol. 3 (Berlin, 1998), 35–110. For a useful summary see Musto, Marcello, “Marx in Paris: Manuscripts and Notebooks of 1844,” Science & Society 73/3 (2009), 386–402, at 398–401CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

61 Skarbek, Frédéric, Théorie des richesses sociales, vol. 2, (Paris, 1829), 252Google Scholar.

62 See Schulz, Wilhelm, Die Bewegung der Production (Zurich, 1843), 64Google Scholar; Karl Marx, “Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844,” in MECW, 3: 229–346, at 241–2, 254 (hereafter “1844 Manuscripts”).

63 Say, Jean-Baptiste, Traité d’économie politique, 3rd edn, vol. 1 (Paris, 1817), 222Google Scholar.

64 Karl Marx, “Jean-Baptiste Say: Traité d’économie politique. T. 1 und 2,” in MEGA 2, IV/2: 301–27, at 307. Marx's notebooks from 1845 also contain examples of the term being used in this way, e.g. Karl Marx, “Exzerpte aus Henri Storch: Cours d’économie politique. T. 1, II, III,” in MEGA 2, IV/3: 233–71, at 239; Marx, , “Exzerpte aus James William Gilbart: The History and Principles of Banking,” in MEGA 2, Section IV, vol. 4 (Berlin, 1988), 146–67, at 151Google Scholar; Marx, “Exzerpte aus William Thompson: An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth,” in MEGA 2, IV/4: 237–46, at 245.

65 Karl Marx, “Exzerpte aus Werken von Pierre de Boisguillebert und John Law sowie aus einer ‘Römischen Geschichte’,” in MEGA 2, IV/3: 35–83, at 55.

66 Karl Marx, “Announcement,” in MECW, 1: 376.

67 See G. Mevissen, “Minutes of the General Meeting of Shareholders of the Rheinische Zeitung, February 12, 1843,” in MECW, 1: 712–24.

68 Karl Marx, “Letters from the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher,” in MECW, 3: 133–45, at 142. See also Marx to Arnold Ruge, 25 Jan. 1843, in MECW, 1: 396–8; Marx to Arnold Ruge, 13 March 1843, in MECW, 1: 398–400, at 398–9; Marx to Ludwig Feuerbach, 3 Oct. 1843, in MECW, 3: 349–51.

69 Marx, “Letters,” 142. This is also the source of the discussion that follows.

70 Marx, “Letters,” 144–5 (translation modified); M. an R., Kreuznach, im September 1843, in MEGA 2, Section I, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1982), 486–9, at 489.

71 Marx, “Letters,” 143–4.

72 Ibid., 144. On Marx's interest in the modern state see Breckman, Warren, Marx, The Young Hegelians, and the Origins of Radical Social Theory: Dethroning the Self (Cambridge, 1999), chap. 7Google Scholar; Leopold, David, The Young Karl Marx: German Philosophy, Modern Politics, and Human Flourishing (Cambridge, 2007), chaps. 2, 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 Karl Marx, “On the Jewish Question,” in MECW, 3: 146–74, at 153–4.

74 Ibid., 162–4, 167.

75 Karl Marx, “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law: Introduction,” in MECW, 3: 175–87, at 178–9, 187.

76 Ibid., 187.

77 See Rose, Sven-Erik, Jewish Philosophical Politics in Germany, 1789–1848 (Waltham, 2014), 191–2, and 329 n. 154CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Hess, Moses, “Ueber das Geldwesen,” Rheinische Jahrbücher zur gesellschaftlichen Reform 1 (1845), 1–34, at 2–9, 28 (the quotation is at 28)Google Scholar.

79 Marx, Critique of Political Economy, 262. See also Engels to Richard Fischer, 15 April 1895, in MECW, 50: 496–8, at 497.

80 Rojahn, Jürgen, “The Emergence of a Theory: The Importance of Marx's Notebooks Exemplified by Those from 1844,” Rethinking Marxism 14/4 (2002), 29–46, at 33–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 Frederick Engels, “Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy,” in MECW, 3: 418–43, at 419.

82 Ibid., 432.

83 See Marx, Critique of Political Economy, 264; Karl Marx, “Summary of Frederick Engels’ Article ‘Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy’,” in MECW, 3: 375–6. On this essay's timeliness see Carver, Terrell, “Marx—and Engels's ‘Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy’,” History of Political Thought 4/2 (1983), 357–65, at 357Google Scholar.

84 Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 270–72 (translation modified); Karl Marx, “Ökonomisch-philosophische Manuskripte (Erste Wiedergabe),” in MEGA 2, I/2: 187–322, at 235. See also Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 235–46.

85 Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 274.

86 Feuerbach, Ludwig, The Essence of Christianity (1841), trans. Eliot, George (Buffalo, 1989), 1–2Google Scholar. Gareth Stedman Jones also notes Hess's influence in the “1844 Manuscripts,” but not the connection between Marx's “mode of production” and Hess's “productive life-activity.” See Stedman Jones, Karl Marx, 172.

87 Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 275–7.

88 Ibid., 281.

89 Ibid., 276.

90 Ibid., 285 (translation modified); Marx, “Ökonomisch-philosophische Manuskripte,” 249–50.

91 Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 296.

92 Ibid., 297.

93 Ibid., 308 (translation modified); Marx, “Ökonomisch-philosophische Manuskripte,” 280.

94 Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 308.

95 Marx and Engels, “[2. Kapitelanfang],” 11 (MECW, 5: 31).

96 Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 300.

97 Ibid., 297, 303.

98 Ibid., 306.

99 Ibid., 302, 297–8. See also Karl Marx, “Comments on James Mill, Élémens d’économie politique,” in MECW, 3: 211–28, at 227–8.

100 Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 327, 332.

101 Marx to Ludwig Feuerbach, 11 Aug. 1844, in MECW, 3: 354–7, at 356; Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 332.

102 Marx to Feuerbach, 11 Aug. 1844, 356; Marx, “1844 Manuscripts,” 327–8.

103 Frederick Engels, Letter in The New Moral World 46, 10 May 1845, in MECW, 4: 237–42, at 240.

104 Quotations from this letter and Bauer's response are from “Correspondenz aus der Provinz,” Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung 6 (1844), 20–38, at 23–8Google Scholar, translated in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Holy Family or Critique of Critical Criticism, in MECW, 4: 5–211, at 149–50.

105 Marx and Engels, The Holy Family, 150.

106 Ibid.

107 Engels to Marx, 17 March 1845, in MECW, 38: 26–30, at 28. Engels was referring to Bruno Bauer and his brother Edgar, whose work was also criticized in The Holy Family. A third Bauer brother, Egbert, published the Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung.

108 Herres, Jürgen, Marx und Engels: Porträt einer intellektuellen Freundschaft (Ditzingen, 2018), 65–7Google Scholar; Engels to Julius Campe, 14 Oct. 1845, in MECW, 38: 34.

109 Bauer included his reply in “Charakteristik Ludwig Feuerbachs,” Wigands Vierteljahrschrift 3 (1845), 86–146Google Scholar.

110 Marx to Carl Friedrich Julius Leske, 1 Aug. 1846, in MECW, 38: 48–52, at 50.

111 See Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, “A Reply to Bruno Bauer's Anti-critique,” in MECW, 5: 15–18.

112 Leopold, David, “A Solitary Life,” in Newman, Saul, ed., Max Stirner (New York, 2011), 21–41, at 24–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

113 Stepelevich, Lawrence S., “The Revival of Max Stirner,” Journal of the History of Ideas 35/2 (1974), 323–8, at 323CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Although Stirner's book was officially published in 1845, “specimen sheets” were made available around November 1844. See Engels to Marx, 19 Nov. 1844, in MECW: 38, 9–14, at 11–13.

114 Feuerbach, Essence of Christianity, 13.

115 Ibid., viii–x, 13, 281.

116 Stirner, Max, The Ego and Its Own (1845), ed. Leopold, David (Cambridge, 1995), 33–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

117 Ibid., 156–8.

118 Ibid., 279–80, 222–3.

119 Ibid., 282.

120 Marx, “Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law: Introduction,” 182.

121 Ibid., 175–6.

122 Ibid., 176.

123 Marx, “On the Jewish Question,” 168.

124 Stirner, The Ego, 158 (translation modified).

125 Engels to Marx, 19 Nov. 1844, 11; Marx to Heinrich Börnstein, end of Dec. 1844–beginning of Jan. 1845, in MECW, 38: 14.

126 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “Das Leipziger Konzil,” in MEGA 2, I/5: 140–43, at 140 (MECW, 5: 94).

127 Bauer, “Charakteristik Ludwig Feuerbachs,” 139, translated in MECW, 5: 109.

128 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “II. Sankt Bruno,” in MEGA 2, I/5: 144–64, at 147–8, 157–8 (MECW, 5: 98–9, 109–10).

129 Stirner, The Ego, 13–18.

130 Ibid., 62–4.

131 Ibid., 76–8, 88.

132 Ibid., 62–3, 139, 155–7.

133 Marx and Engels, “Sankt Max,” 187 (MECW, 5: 136).

134 Ibid., 292 (MECW, 5: 237, translation modified).

135 Ibid., 491 (MECW, 5: 433).

136 Ibid., 291(MECW, 5: 236).

137 Ibid.

138 Ibid., 381 (MECW, 5: 327).

139 Ibid., 194–5 (MECW, 5: 144).

140 Ibid., 197 (MECW, 5: 146).

141 Ibid., 227–30 (MECW, 5: 173–6).

142 Ibid., 223 (MECW, 5: 170).

143 Ibid., 229 (MECW, 5: 176)

144 Ibid.

145 Ibid., 231 (MECW, 5: 177–8).

146 Marx and Engels, “5. [Fragment],” 136 (MECW, 5: 37).

147 Marx and Engels, “Sankt Max,” 495–6 (MECW, 5: 437–8).

148 Ibid., 413 (MECW, 5: 356, translation modified).

149 Ibid., 410 (MECW, 5: 355).

150 Stirner, The Ego, 223.

151 Marx and Engels, “Sankt Max,” 418–19 (MECW, 5: 361–2).

152 Stirner, The Ego, 88, 220, 229.

153 Marx and Engels, “Sankt Max,” 425 (MECW, 5: 367, translation modified).

154 Ibid. (translation modified).

155 Marx and Engels, “[2. Kapitelanfang],” 11 (MECW, 5: 31).

156 Ibid. (MECW, 5: 32).

157 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “IV. Karl Grün: Die soziale Bewegung in Frankreich u. Belgien (Darmstadt 1845) oder: die Geschichtsschreibung des wahren Sozialismus,” in MEGA 2, I/5: 545–89, at 574 (MECW, 5: 516).

158 Ibid.

159 Karl Marx, “Marginal Notes on Adolph Wagner's Lehrbuch der politischen Oekonomie,” in MECW, 24: 531–59, at 547.

160 Karl Marx, “Introduction,” in MECW, 28: 17–48, at 23, 44.

161 Ibid., 43–4.

162 Marx to Engels, 8 Dec. 1857, in MECW, 40: 214–17, at 217 (translation modified); Karl Marx to Friedrich Engels, 8. Dec. 1857, in MEGA 2, Section III, vol. 8 (Berlin, 1990), 208–210, at 210. See also Marx to Ferdinand Lassalle, 21 Dec. 1857, in MECW, 40: 225–7, at 226. Marx began this work in October 1857.

163 On the relationship between Marx's 1857 “Introduction” and these notebooks see Chambers, Samuel A., Bearing Society in Mind (London, 2014), 88–9Google Scholar.

164 Karl Marx, “Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy,” in MECW, 28: 49–537, at 389.

165 Marx, Karl, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1, trans. Fowkes, Ben (New York, 1990), 90Google Scholar.

166 See Marx to Ferdinand Lassalle, 11 March 1858, in MECW, 40: 286–7, at 287.

167 Marx, Critique of Political Economy, 262–3 (translation modified); Marx, Karl, Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie. Erstes Heft, in MEGA 2, Section II, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1980), 95–245, at 100–1Google Scholar.

168 Lenin, V. I., “The Three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism,” in Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 19 (Moscow, 1973), 23–8, at 25Google Scholar.

169 Churbanov, “Preface,” xvii–xviii.

170 Levine, Andrew and Wright, Erik Olin, “Rationality and Class Struggle,” New Left Review 1/123 (1980), 47–68, at 47–50Google Scholar. The classic presentation of this theory of history is Cohen, G. A., Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton, 1978)Google Scholar.

171 Wood, Democracy against Capitalism, 129; Prinz, Arthur M., “Background and Ulterior Motive of Marx's ‘Preface’ of 1859,” Journal of the History of Ideas 30/3 (1969), 437–50, at 446–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

172 Marx, “Introduction,” 23.