Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T06:54:30.895Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE “MORAL BASIS” OF RECONSTRUCTION? HUMANITARIANISM, INTELLECTUAL RELIEF AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, 1918–1925

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 March 2019

TOMÁS IRISH
TOMÁS IRISH*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Swansea University E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article analyses the post-First World War emergence of intellectual relief. This is defined here as aid given to intellectuals and scholarly institutions. Relief included the provision of food and medicines to individuals as well as the supply of relevant scholarly literature and laboratory equipment to academic institutions. After 1918, significant humanitarian interventions targeted Central and Eastern Europe, which had been ravaged by war and its myriad consequences. The article argues that intellectual relief, while frequently using the language of the “crisis of civilization,” was part of the broader effort to safeguard the postwar liberal democratic order against Bolshevism. The article pays particular attention to the League of Nations' Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (CIC) to show how states like Hungary used intellectual deprivation to agitate for treaty revision. It argues that the CIC's development was shaped by the wider dynamics of intellectual relief.

Type
Articles
Information
Modern Intellectual History , Volume 17 , Issue 3 , September 2020 , pp. 769 - 800
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Daniel Laqua, Elisabeth Piller, Katharina Rietzler, Ciarán Wallace and the anonymous reviewers for Modern Intellectual History for their comments on previous drafts of this article

References

1 Article 247, Treaty of Versailles, at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/versailles_menu.asp. Horne, John and Kramer, Alan, German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial (New Haven, 2001), 387Google Scholar.

2 Cabanes, Bruno, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism 1918–1924 (Cambridge, 2014); 189–247Google Scholar; Patenaude, Bertrand, The Big Show in Bololand: The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921 (Stanford, 2002)Google Scholar; Tessaris, Chiara, “The War Relief Work of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee in Poland and Lithuania, 1915–18,” East European Jewish Affairs 40/2 (2010), 127–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Blackburn, Christopher, “The Rebirth of Poland: American Humanitarianism after the Great War,” Studia Historyczne 4/228 (2014), 522–39Google Scholar; Irwin, Julia F., “Taming Total War: Great War-Era American Humanitarianism and Its Legacies,” Diplomatic History 38/4 (2014), 763–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Proctor, Tammy M., “An American Enterprise: British Participation in US Food Relief Programmes (1914–1923),” First World War Studies 5/1 (2014), 29–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brewis, Georgina, A Social History of Student Volunteering: Britain and Beyond, 1880–1980 (New York, 2014), 52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Baughan, Emily, “The Imperial War Relief Fund and the All British Appeal: Commonwealth, Conflict and Conservatism within the British Humanitarian Movement, 1920–25,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 40/5 (2012), 845–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Mommsen, Wolfgang J., “German Artists, Writers, and Intellectuals, and the Meaning of War 1914–1918,” in Horne, John, ed., State, Society and Mobilization in Europe during the First World War (Cambridge, 1997), 21–38;CrossRefGoogle ScholarRinger, Fritz K., The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1890–1933 (Cambridge, MA, 1969), 180–90Google Scholar; Kramer, Alan, Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War (Oxford, 2007), 159–64Google Scholar; Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 280–82; Hanna, Martha, The Mobilization of Intellect: French Scholars and Writers during the Great War (Cambridge, MA, 1996), 78–85Google Scholar; Nagler, Jörg, “From Culture to Kultur: Changing American Perceptions of Imperial Germany, 1870–1914,” in Barclay, David E. and Glaser-Schmidt, Elisabeth, eds., Transatlantic Images and Perceptions: Germany and America since 1776 (Cambridge, 1997), 131–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Palmier, Jean-Michel, Weimar in Exile: The Antifascist Emigration in Europe and America (London, 2006)Google Scholar; Crawford, Sally, Ulmschneider, Katharina and Elsner, Jaś, eds., Ark of Civilization: Refugee Scholars and Oxford University, 1930–1945 (Oxford, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jeffries, Stuart, Grand Hotel Abyss: The Lives of the Frankfurt School (London, 2016)Google Scholar; Coser, Lewis, Refugee Scholars in America: Their Impact and Their Experience (New Haven, 1984)Google Scholar; Fleming, Donald and Bailyn, Bernard, eds., The Intellectual Migration: Europe and America, 1930–1960 (Cambridge, MA, 1969)Google Scholar.

5 Duggan, Stephen and Drury, Betty, The Rescue of Science and Learning: The Story of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars (New York, 1948), 3–4Google Scholar.

6 Krige, John, American Hegemony and the Postwar Reconstruction of Science in Europe (Cambridge, MA, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Irish, Tomás, “Fractured Families: Educated Elites in Britain and France and the Challenge of the Great War,” Historical Journal 57/2 (2014), 509–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Winter, Jay, The Great War and the British People (London, 1985), 92–9Google Scholar; Sirinelli, Jean-François, Génération intellectuelle: Khâgneux et normaliens dans l'entre-deux-guerres (Paris, 1988), 26–30Google Scholar.

8 For more on the many ways in which academic life was transformed by the First World War see Irish, Tomás, The University at War 1914–25: Britain, France and the United States (Basingstoke, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and the essays in Irish, Tomás and Chagnon, Marie-Eve, eds., The Academic World in the Era of the Great War (London, 2018)Google Scholar.

9 Kevles, Daniel, “‘Into Hostile Political Camps’: The Reorganization of International Science in World War I,” Isis 62/1 (1971), 47–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cock, A. G., “Chauvinism and Internationalism in Science: The International Research Council, 1919–1926,” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 37/2 (1983), 249–88Google ScholarPubMed.

10 Paul Valéry, “The Spiritual Crisis,” The Athenaeum, 11 April 1919, 182–4, at 182.

11 Rolland, Romain, Quinze ans de combat (1919–1934) (Paris, 1935), 7–9Google Scholar.

12 Ifversen, Jan, “The Crisis of European Civilisation after 1918,” in Spiering, Menno and Wintle, Michael, eds., Ideas of Europe since 1914: The Legacy of the First World War (Basingstoke, 2002), 14–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 14.

13 Toynbee, Arnold J., The World after the Peace Conference (London, 1926), 87–9Google Scholar.

14 Little, Branden, “An Explosion of New Endeavours: Global Humanitarian Responses to Industrialised Warfare in the First World War Era,” First World War Studies 5/1 (2014), 1–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 1.

15 Horne, John and Gerwarth, Robert, eds., War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe after the Great War (Oxford, 2013)Google Scholar; Gerwarth, Robert, The Vanquished: Why the First World War Failed to End, 1917–1923 (London, 2016)Google Scholar.

16 Watenpaugh, Keith David, Bread from Stones: The Middle East and the Making of Modern Humanitarianism (Oakland, 2015), 4–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Watenpaugh, , “The League of Nations’ Rescue of Armenian Genocide Survivors and the Making of Modern Humanitarianism, 1920–1927,” American Historical Review 115/5 (2010), 1315–39CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, at 1319.

17 Cabanes, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 300–1.

18 Ibid., 189–239.

19 Irwin, “Taming Total War,” 763, 767.

20 Grace Osler to George Dock, 17 Nov. 1914, Osler Library, Montreal, Grace Revere Osler Papers, 326/1.5; Edwin B. Frost, letter to Science, new series 40/1032 (1914), 522; Book of Belgium's Gratitude (London, 1916).

21 Hyman, Joseph C., Twenty-Five Years of American Aid to Jews Overseas (New York, 1939), 21–2Google Scholar.

22 “Extension of Assistance to the Intellectual Classes,” A.R.A. Bulletin 2/12 (1921), 28–31.

23 “Notes on Relief,” A.R.A. Bulletin 21/2 (1922), 36.

24 “American Service to the Intellectual Classes,” A.R.A. Bulletin 2/9 (1921), 32.

25 Patenaude, Big Show in Bololand, 179.

26 Brewis, A Social History of Student Volunteering, 54.

27 European Student Relief report, League of Nations Archives, United Nations Library, Geneva (LNA) 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24805x (R1049).

28 “Student Feeding in European Universities,” A.R.A. Bulletin 2/13 (1921), 31–5.

29 “Universities Committee: The Work of the Past Year and the Future Outlook,” Oct. 1921, LNA, 13C Dossier 14297, Document 25341x. For more on the work of the Universities’ Committee and student relief more generally see Brewis, A Social History of Student Volunteering, 51–63.

30 “Letter to the Graduate Members of Great Britain and Ireland,” Beveridge Papers, London School of Economics archives, LSE/Beveridge/7/90/156.

31 Butler to Henry Pritchett, 4 April 1922, Columbia University Rare Books and Manuscripts Library, Columbia University, New York, Carnegie Corporation, III.A.Grant Files.72, Folder 9.

32 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Year Book 1921 (Washington, DC: 1921), 35–42.

33 The full list of countries in receipt of scientific literature was: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey and Yugoslavia. The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Report, 1924 (New York, 1924), 325.

34 Housden, Martyn, “White Russians Crossing the Black Sea: Fridtjof Nansen, Constantinople and the First Modern Repatriation of Refugees Displaced by Civil Conflict, 1922–23,” Slavonic and East European Review 88/3 (2010), 495–524Google Scholar; Cabanes, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 140–48.

35 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, The Cultural Front: Power and Culture in Revolutionary Russia (Ithaca, 1992), 37–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Finkel, Stuart, On the Ideological Front: The Russian Intelligentsia and the Making of the Soviet Public Sphere (New Haven, 2006), 13–38Google Scholar.

36 Reynold, Gonzague de, La vie intellectuelle dans les divers pays: Russie. Rapport sur la situation et l'organisation des intellectuels Russes hors de Russie (Geneva, c. 1923), 5Google Scholar.

37 De Reynold, La vie intellectuelle, 7; “Les intellectuels russes à l’étranger,” Le Figaro, 12 Sept. 1923, 4. See Raeff, Marc, Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration, 1919–1939 (Oxford, 1990), 61–7Google Scholar.

38 Raeff, Russia Abroad, 61.

39 Report by Fridtjof Nansen, high commissioner for refugees, LNA C-103-1924, 10 March 1924, 6.

40 Robert C. Williams, Culture in Exile: Russian Émigrés in Germany, 1881–1941 (Ithaca, 1972), 111, 130–31.

41 The Athenaeum, 27 Oct. 1920, 574.

42 The Athenaeum, 7 Jan. 1921, 25.

43 UNESCO Archives, Paris, Intellectual Cooperation Papers, C.I.3.

44 “Relief for Russian Scientific Men,” Science 56/1449 (1922), 389–90, at 389.

45 “Aid to Russian Scientists,” Science 56/1453 (1922), 504–5.

46 “Notes on Relief Operations,” A.R.A. Bulletin 2/21 (1922), 35.

47 “Statement by M. de Reynold on the Condition of Intellectual Life in Austria,” LNA, 13C, Dossier 23024, Document 23024 (R1046).

48 “Letter to the Graduate Members of Great Britain and Ireland,” Nov. 1921, Beveridge Papers, LSE/Beveridge/7/90/156.

49 Maier, Charles S., The Recasting of Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade after World War One (Princeton, 1975), 6Google Scholar.

50 Peterecz, Zoltan, Jeremiah Smith Jr. and Hungary 1924–1926: The United States, the League of Nations, and the Financial Reconstruction of Hungary (Berlin, 2013), 81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 John Horne and Robert Gerwarth, “Bolshevism as Fantasy: Fear of Revolution and Counter-revolutionary Violence, 1917–1923” in Horne and Gerwarth, War in Peace, 40–51, at 42–3.

52 Thompson, John M., Russia, Bolshevism and the Versailles Peace (Princeton, 1966), 222Google Scholar.

53 Quoted in Blackburn, “The Rebirth of Poland,” 528.

54 Toynbee, The World after the Peace Conference, 71.

55 Gerwarth and Horne, “Bolshevism as Fantasy,” 42.

56 Manela, Erez, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford, 2007)Google Scholar.

57 Monaghan, Shannon, Protecting Democracy from Dissent: Population Engineering in Western Europe 1918–1926 (London, 2017), 1–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Weitz, Eric D.: “From the Vienna to the Paris System: Internatational Politics and the Entangled Histories of Human Rights, Forced Deportations, and Civilizing Missions,” American Historical Review 113/5 (2008), 1313–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 1316.

59 Bryce, James, Modern Democracies, vol. 1 (London, 1921), viii, 4Google Scholar.

60 Monaghan, Protecting Democracy from Dissent, 15–18.

61 Orzoff, Andrea, The Battle for the Castle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe, 1914–1948 (Oxford, 2009), 58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Masaryk, Thomas, The Making of a State: Memories and Observations 1914–1918 (London, 1927), 398–9Google Scholar.

63 Ibid., 397.

64 Bryce, Modern Democracies, 87.

65 Ibid., 88–9.

66 Masaryk, The Making of a State, 399.

67 A director of the American Relief Administration, “The Situation of the Intellectual Class in Central Europe,” A.R.A. Bulletin 2/3 (1920), 36.

68 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Year Book 1921 (Washington, DC: 1921), 43–4.

69 “The Situation of the Intellectual Class in Central Europe,” A.R.A. Bulletin 2/3 (1920), 40.

70 “The Anglo-American University Library for Central Europe,” Oct. 1920, LSE/Beveridge/VII/90/96/1–4. See also Heather Ellis, “Men of Science: The British Association, Masculinity and the First World War,” in Chagnon and Irish, The Academic World in the Era of the Great War, 43–64, at 56–8.

71 Pedersen, Susan, “Back to the League of Nations,” American Historical Review 112/4 (2007), 1091–1117CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 1092. Notable examples of reassessments of the League include Steiner, Zara, The Lights That Failed: European International History, 1919–1933 (Oxford, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Steiner, , The Triumph of the Dark: European International History, 1933–1939 (Oxford, 2011)Google Scholar; Mazower, Mark, Governing the World: The History of an Idea (London, 2012)Google Scholar; Cabanes, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism; Clavin, Patricia, Securing the World Economy: The Reinvention of the League of Nations (Oxford, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Laqua, Daniel, ed., Internationalism Reconfigured: Transnational Ideas and Movements between the World Wars (London, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pedersen, Susan, The Guardians: The League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire (Oxford, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Winter, Jay and Prost, Antoine, René Cassin and Human Rights: From the Great War to the Universal Declaration (Cambridge, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 Pemberton, Jo-Anne, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Co-operation: From the League of Nations to UNESCO,” Australian Journal of Politics and History 58/1 (2012), 34–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Renoliet, Jean-Jacques, L'UNESCO oubliée: La Société des nations et la coopération intellectuelle, 1919–1946 (Paris, 1999)Google Scholar; Laqua, Daniel, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation, the League of Nations, and the Problem of Order,” Journal of Global History 6/2 (2011), 223–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Laqua, , The Age of Internationalism and Belgium, 1880–1930: Peace, Progress and Prestige (Manchester, 2013), 194–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Canales, Jimena, “Einstein, Bergson, and the Experiment That Failed: Intellectual Cooperation at the League of Nations,” MLN 120/5 (2005), 1168–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gorman, Daniel, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s (Cambridge, 2012), 203–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pernet, Corinne A., “Twists, Turns, and Dead Alleys: The League of Nations and Intellectual Cooperation in Times of War,” Journal of Modern European History 12/3 (2014), 342–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pernet, , “‘The Spirit of Harmony’ and the Politics of (Latin American) History at the League of Nations,” in McPherson, Alan and Wehrli, Yannick, eds., Beyond Geopolitics: New Histories of Latin America at the League of Nations (Albuquerque, NM., 2015), 135–53Google Scholar.

73 Gilbert Murray, “Intellectual Cooperation,” BBC Broadcast, 5 March 1930, Bodleian Library, Oxford, MS Murray 277/97.

74 Leland, Waldo G., “Some Aspects of International Intellectual Co-operation since the World War,” Advocate of Peace through Justice 92/2 (1930), 112–23Google Scholar, at 112.

75 Laqua, Daniel, “Activism in the ‘Students’ League of Nations’: International Student Politics and the Confédération Internationale des étudiants, 1919–1939,” English Historical Review 132/556 (2017), 605–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 619–20.

76 Laqua, The Age of Internationalism, 194, Renoliet, L'UNESCO oubliée, 13.

77 Renoliet, L'UNESCO oubliée, 17.

78 “The Desirability of Creating a Technical Organisation for Intellectual Work: Memorandum by the Secretary-General,” 5 Sept. 1921, Bibliothèque de documentation internationale contemporaine, Paris, 4 Delta 1056.

79 Renoliet, L'UNESCO oubliée, 18.

80 Ibid., 25.

81 Cited in Daniel Laqua, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation,” 224.

82 The other members of the CIC in 1922 were Jules Destrée (Belgium), Gonzague de Reynold (Switzerland), Kristine Bonnevie (Norway), F. Ruffini (Italy) and L. de Torres Quevedo (Spain). “League's Intellectual Committee,” The Times, 25 July 1923, 11.

83 Inazo Nitobe to Gilbert Murray, 4 Aug. 1923, MS Murray 265/145.

84 Wünsch, Danielle, “Einstein et la Commission internationale de coopération intellectuelle/Einstein and the International Commission for Intellectual Cooperation,” Revue d'histoire des sciences 57/2 (2004), 512–14Google Scholar.

85 LNA C-559-1922-XII, 3.

86 Ibid., 4.

87 Conrad Hoffmann to Inazo Nitobe, 12 Oct. 1922; Grete Ebel to Nitobe, 16 Nov. 1922, LNA, 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24805x (R1049).

88 Hoffmann to Nitobe, 29 Nov. 1922, LNA, 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24805x (R1049).

89 Conrad Hoffmann to K. S. Stafford, 24 Jan. 1923, LNA, 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24805x (R1049).

90 See, for example, the needs of the Crimean University. Letter of L. Vishnevsky, 26 July 1922, LNA, 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24805x (R1049).

91 “Statement by M. de Reynold, Rapporteur of the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, on the Condition of Intellectual life in Austria,” League of Nations Official Journal, Dec. 1922, 1520–23, at 1522.

92 “Report on the Conditions of Intellectual Life in Austria, Approved by the Council on September 13th, 1922,” LNA, 13C, Dossier 23024, Document 23024 (R1046).

93 “Provisional Memorandum on the Conditions of Intellectual Life in Poland Submitted to the Council by the Committee on Intellectual Co-operation and Approved by the Council on September 13th, 1922,” LNA, 13C, Dossier 23024, Document 23502 (R1046).

94 “Appeal on Behalf of the League of Nations for Aid to Austrian Intellectual Workers,” Science 56/1461 (1922), 743–4, at 743.

95 Ibid.

96 Ibid., 744.

97 LNA, 13C, Dossier 24014, Document 24014 (R1050).

98 Memorandum by the secretary-general, 24 Oct. 1922, LNA, R1046, 13C-24013x-23024.

99 Clavin, Securing the World Economy, 29; Clavin, Patricia, “The Austrian Hunger Crisis and the Genesis of International Organization after the First World War,” International Affairs 90/2 (2014), 265–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 266.

100 Memorandum by the secretary-general, 28 Dec. 1922, LNA, R1050, 13C-24014-23815.

101 For example, see the LNA, 13C, Dossier 24014, Document 25514 (R1050).

102 “Report Submitted by the Secretary on the Assistance to Be Rendered to Countries Where the Continuance of Intellectual Life Is Particularly Endangered,” LNA, C-570-M-224-1923-XII, 59–60.

103 Mano to the Secretariat, 3 May 1923, LNA, 13C, Dossier 24014, Document 28928 (R1050).

104 Murray to Halecki, 17 Oct. 1922; see also the appeal by the Budapest Observatory of 26 Sept. 1922. LNA, 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24372 (R1049).

105 Peterecz, Jeremiah Smith Jr. and Hungary, 82–3.

106 Nagy, Zsolt, Great Expectations and Interwar Realities: Hungarian Cultural Diplomacy, 1918–1941 (Budapest and New York, 2017), 4–9Google Scholar, 50–60.

107 Eottevényi, Oliver, “Cultural Effects of the Treaty of Trianon,” in Apponyi, Albert, ed., Justice for Hungary: Review and Criticism of the Effects of the Treaty of Trianon (London, 1928), 189–250Google Scholar, at 240.

108 Rector of Szeged University to CIC, [unknown] Nov. 1922, LNA 13C, Dossier 24014, Document 32240 (R1050).

109 Nagy, Great Expectations and Interwar Realities, 38.

110 “Report on the Three Years’ Activities of the Committee Founded to Ensure the Scientific Work of the Hungarian Universities (July 1922–June 1925),” LNA, 13C, Dossier 38975, Document 41427 (R1075).

111 Halecki, Oskar, Enquiry into the Conditions of Intellectual Work, Second Series. Intellectual Life in Various Countries. Hungary (n.l., c. 1923), 6Google Scholar.

112 Peterecz, Jeremiah Smith Jr. and Hungary, 95–8, Clavin, Securing the World Economy, 30, Apponyi to Bergson, 22 Sept. 1924, LNA, 13C, Dossier 38975, Document 39204 (R1075).

113 “An Appeal,” 5 Nov. 1924, LNA, C-621-M-220-1924-XII.

114 LNA, 13C, Dossier 38975, Document 41420 (R1075).

115 “Report on the Three Years’ Activities,” LNA, 13C, Dossier 38975, Document 41427 (R1075).

116 Proposal by the Romanian delegation, Sept. 1924, LNA, 13C, Dossier 38845, Document 38845 (R1075).

117 LNA, 13C, Dossier 38845, Document 42054 (R1075). See also Laqua, Daniel, “Internationalisme où affirmation de la nation? La coopération intellectuelle transnationale dans l’entre deux-guerres,” Critique international 3/52 (2011), 51–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 56–7.

118 LNA, 13C, Dossier 31006, Document 32411 (R1059).

119 Committee of Intellectual Co-operation, Minutes of the Third Session, Paris, 5–8 Dec. 1923, LNA, C-3-M-3-1924-X-II, 35–44.

120 Cock, “Chauvinism and Internationalism in Science,” 249–88, Schroeder-Gudehus, Brigitte, “Challenge to Transnational Loyalties: International Scientific Organizations after the First World War,” Science Studies 3/2 (1973), 93–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

121 Laqua, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation,” 234.

122 Kautsky, Karl, “Germany since the War,” Foreign Affairs 1/2 (1922), 99–199CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 113.

123 Rietzler, Katharina, “Philanthropy, Peace Research, and Revisionist Politics: Rockefeller and Carnegie Support for the Study of International Relations in Weimar Germany,” GHI Bulletin Supplement 5 (2008), 61–79Google Scholar, at 66.

124 Elisabeth Piller, “‘Can the Science of the World Allow This?’ German Academic Distress, Foreign Aid and the Cultural Demobilization of the Academic World, 1919–25,” in Chagnon and Irish, The Academic World in the Era of the Great War, 189–212.

125 Einstein to the CIC committee, 21 March 1923, MS Murray 265/118.

126 Murray to Drummond, 3 March 1924, MS Murray 266/17; Murray, “League and Germany,” The Times, 5 March 1924, 10. See Laqua, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation,” 234–5.

127 Cited in letter of Nitobe to Murray, 7 April 1924, MS Murray 266/30.

128 Drummond to Murray, 8 March 1924, MS Murray 266/20.

129 Committee of Intellectual Cooperation, Minutes of the Second Session, Geneva, 26 July–2 Aug. 1923, LNA, C-570-M-224-1923-x-ii, 9.

130 Gonzague de Reynold, “The League and Germany,” March 1924, UNESCO archives, A.I.35.

131 Piller, “Can the Science of the World Allow This?”, 195–6.

132 Letter on behalf of Academia Romana to Helene Vacaresco, LNA, 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24535 (R1049).

133 Garnett to CIC, 25 June 1923, LNA, 13C, Dossier 14297, Document 29542 (R1032).

134 Eleanora Iredale to Nitobe, 10 Jan. 1923, LNA, 13C, Dossier 14297, Document 25541 (R1032).

135 B. M. Headicar to Halecki, 9 Jan. 1923, LNA, 13C, Dossier 23815, Document 24097 (R1049).

136 Report by René Viviani, “Intellectual Cooperation: Scheme for Furthering Intellectual Exchanges in Central and Eastern Europe,” Jan. 1923, LNA, C-112-1923; and report by Gabriel Hanotaux, “Work by the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation,” 1923, LNA, C-573-(1)-1923-XII, Annex II to C-L-20-1924-XII.

137 Memorandum by secretary-general, 11 Dec. 1922, LNA, 13C, Dossier 23024, Document 25168 (R1046).

138 See LNA, 13C, Dossier 29604 (R1057, R1058) for full details on these reports.

139 Bizarrely, they did not include Great Britain as the manuscript submitted for publication was lost in Geneva. LNA, 13C, Dossier 23024, Document 25753 (R1046).

140 Agreement Regarding Establishment of International Institution for Intellectual Cooperation, 8 Dec. 1924, MS Murray 266/100.

141 Organic Statute of the Institute for Intellectual Cooperation, 1924, MS Murray 266/102–5.

142 These were Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, Switzerland. MS Murray 266/122–3.

143 The non-European nations were Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, Cuba, India, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Salvador, South Africa, Syria and the United States. National Committees on Intellectual Cooperation (Geneva, 1937), 3–4.

144 Laqua, “Internationalisme ou affirmation de la nation?”, 55.

145 Steiner, The Lights That Failed, 800–16.

146 Palmier, Weimar in Exile.

147 De Reynold, La vie intellectuelle, 24.