¹ ‘Whiteness’ is treated in this article as a culturally and legally constructed category, the specific definition of which differed in different colonial contexts. See, for example, Pattynama, P., ‘Interracial unions and the ethical policy: the representation of the everyday in Indo-European family photo albums’, in Photography, Modernity and the Governed in Late Colonial Indonesia, Protschky, S. (ed.), Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 2015, pp. 137–8.Google Scholar

² In this article, inverted commas are used around photographic captions to indicate that the caption or description is from the original photograph (as in the case of this photograph). Where the caption or description has been provided by the archival institution, inverted commas are not used.

³ Poole, D., Vision, Race and Modernity: A Visual Economy of the Andean Image World, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1997, pp. 12–13.Google Scholar

⁴ Edwards, E., ‘Introduction’, in Anthropology and Photography, 1860–1920, Edwards, E. (ed.), Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992, pp. 5, 6, 8.Google Scholar

⁵ Barthes, R., Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, Hill and Wang, New York, 1981, pp. 6Google Scholar, 10, 2; Lydon, J., Eye Contact: Photogrpahing Indigenous Australians, Duke University Press, Durham, 2005, pp. 2Google Scholar, 5, 32.

⁶ Pinney, C., ‘Introduction: “how the other half . . .”’, in Photography's Other Histories, Pinney, C. and Peterson, N. (eds), Duke University Press, Durham, 2003, pp. 6–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ M. Aird, ‘Growing up with Aborigines’, in Pinney and Peterson, Photography's Other Histories, p. 25.

⁸ Stoler, A. L., Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2010, p. xxxv.Google Scholar

⁹ See the work of all four authors in the following collection: Protschky, Photography.

¹⁰ See Lowrie, C., Masters and Servants: Cultures of Empire in the Tropics, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2016, pp. 229–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Locher-Scholten, E., ‘So close and yet so far: the ambivalence of Dutch colonial rhetoric on Javanese servants in Indonesia, 1900–1942’, in Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism, Clancy-Smith, J. and Gouda, F. (eds), University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1998, p. 136.Google Scholar

¹¹ See, for example, Chinese man in a carriage with his baby, Probolinggo, Java, circa 1920, photographer: Hokhin, Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (hereafter KITLV), 179522; A Redjang woman with her Chinese husband and their babu, Sumatra, circa 1905, KITLV, 90638; A Chinese woman with a servant, Surabaya, Java, circa 1880, photographer: J. B. Jasper, KITLV, 105643; Studio Portrait of a Chinese man with his child and a servant, Surabaya, Java, 1911, photographer: Javasche Photograaf, KITLV, 178702; Studio portrait of a Chinese girl with her baby, Surabaya, Java, circa 1925, photographer: Wah Sun, KITLV, 179510; Chinese family with Indonesia servants in Batavia, Java, circa 1900, photographer: Tan Tjie Lan, KITLV, 408060; Prince Poeroebojo, major general and brother to the crown prince of Yogyakarta, with his wife Raden Ajoe Poeroebojo and servants, Yogyakarta, Java, circa 1920, photographer: Charls and Van Es and Co, Tropeen Museum, TM-60040201; Servant girls (‘Mui Tsai’), Hong Kong, circa 1910–20, Hong Kong Museum of History, P1998.337; An amah with two small children wearing crowns, collar and padlock (as a talisman) Lunar New Year, Hong Kong, 1909, Hong Kong Public Records Office (hereafter HKPRO), Government Records Service, PH001923.

¹² Stoler, Carnal Knowledge, p. 209.

¹³ See, for example, Batman, cook and boy, Tonkin, Indochina, circa 1895–99, Archives nationales d'outre-mer, FR ANOM 8Fi435/90; Servants of the King, Luang Prabang, Laos, 1897, Bibliothèque nationale de France, FR BNF 41419540; French Officer and his servants, Indochina, date unknown, http://nguyentl.free.fr/html/photo_francais_fr.htm, [accessed 15 March 2018].

¹⁴ F. Gouda and J. Clancy-Smith, ‘Introduction’, in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, Domesticating the Empire, pp. 4–5; Ballantyne, T., ‘Rereading the archive and opening up the nation-state: colonial knowledge in South Asia (and beyond)’, in After the Imperial Turn: Thinking with and through the Nation, Burton, A. (ed.), Duke University Press, Durham, 2003, p. 113Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Martinez, J. and Lowrie, C., ‘Transcolonial influences on everyday American imperialism: the politics of Chinese domestic servants in the Philippines’, Pacific Historical Review, vol. 81, no. 4, 2012, p. 526Google Scholar; Munn, C., ‘Hong Kong, 1841–1870: all the servants in prison and nobody to take care of the house’, in Masters, Servants, and Magistrates in Britain and the Empire, 1562–1955, Hay, D. and Craven, P. (eds), University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2004, p. 365.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Bird, I., The Golden Chersonese: The Malayan Travels of a Victorian Lady, Oxford University Press, Singapore, 1990, p. 116Google Scholar; Nathan, J. E., The Census of British Malaya 1921, Waterlow and Sons, London, 1922, p. 239.Google Scholar

¹⁷ This percentage assumes that most of the ‘Chinese in the employ of foreigners’ were servants. Population According to the Census of 20^th of May, 1891, University of Hong Kong, Blue Book, 1891, p. M2; Hong Kong: Report on the Census of the Colony for 1921, University of Hong Kong, Sessional Paper, 1921, pp. 217, 183.

¹⁸ The census of Australia did not include the so-called ‘full-blood’ Aboriginal population and, as a result, the substantial numbers of Aboriginal male and female servants are not accounted for this figure. Census of the Philippine Islands 1903: Volume II Population, United States Bureau of the Census, Washington, 1905, p. 865; G. H. Knibbs, Census of the Commonwealth of Australia 1911: Part XII Occupations, pp. 1300, 1314.

¹⁹ Census of 1930 in Netherlands India, Volume VIII: Summary of the Volumes I–VII, Department for Economic Affairs, Batavia, 1936, pp. 124–5.

²⁰ ‘Lure of the East’, The Brisbane Courier, 7 May 1932.

²¹ Steedman, C., Labours Lost: Domestic Service and the Making of Modern England, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, p. 13Google Scholar; Sarti, R., ‘Forum: domestic service since 1750’, Gender and History, vol. 18, no. 2, 2006, pp. 188–9Google Scholar; Salmon, L. M., ‘A statisitical inquiry concerning domestic service’, Publications of the American Statistical Association, vol. 3, no. 18–19, 1892, pp. 95–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Higman, B. W., Domestic Service in Australia, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 2002, p. 61Google Scholar.

²² See, for example, Babu with three children, Netherlands Indies, circa 1905, KITLV, 86058; ‘Mrs Douglas MacArthur (right) with her son Arthur after their arrival from the Philippines. Arthur's Chinese Amah (nanny), Au Cheu is sitting at left’, Melbourne, Australia, 1942, Australian War Memorial, P02018.079; ‘Jim and his mother's Aboriginal servant’, circa 1910s, Northern Territory, John Oxley Library Collection, NTL, PH0171/0048; ‘Chinese Amah with her charge’, Singapore, 1930, National Archives of Singapore (hereafter NAS), ACC 94402; An amah with two small children wearing crowns, collar and padlock (as a talisman) Lunar New Year, Hong Kong, 1909, HKPRO, PH001923.

²³ In addition to Figures 1–18, see Private residence, probably Hong Kong Island, circa 1875, Hong Kong Museum of History P1969.218; Four Chinese staff (two seated, two standing) pose on steps outside Government House, Darwin, circa 1911–18, Jean A. Austin Collection, Northern Territory Library (hereafter NTL), PH0412-0008.

²⁴ Protschky, S., ‘Tea cups, cameras and family life: picturing domesticity in elite European and Javanese family photographs from the Netherlands Indies, Ca. 1900–42’, History of Photography, vol. 36, no. 1, 2012, p. 58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²⁶ ‘And His Excellency's houseboy’, Straits Times, 12 September 1937.

²⁷ Martinez and Lowrie, ‘Transcolonial influences ’, pp. 520–5.

²⁸ Census of 1930 in Netherlands India, Volume VIII, pp. 124–5.

²⁹ See Figures 9 and 4, as well as the following: A doctor and his Chinese servant at the doctor's house in Soebang, Java, circa 1907–12, KITLV, 41735; Two men drinking beer on the verandah of a home in the Dutch East Indies with a servant in the background, circa 1910, KITLV, 178818.

³⁰ Locher-Scholten, ‘So close yet so far’, p. 136.

³¹ An exception to this is an image of adolescent Chinese male servants seated on the floor below their British masters in Singapore. It is possible that they were positioned in this way due to their young age. European men and two Chinese houseboys, late nineteenth century, National Museum of Singapore (hereafter NMS), ACC-1996-00089.

³² Gelman-Taylor, J., ‘The sewing-machine in colonial-era photographs: a record from Dutch Indonesia’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 46, no. 1, 2012, p. 79Google Scholar.

³³ Martinez and Lowrie, ‘Transcolonial influences’, pp. 520–5; Chin, C., In Service and Servitude: Foreign Female Domestic Workers and the Malaysian ‘Modernity’ Project, Columbia University Press, New York, 1998, p. 71Google Scholar.

³⁴ See also American couple seated in the garden area of their house in Manila, circa 1910–15, Philippines, Japan, and China Travel Album, University of Michigan Library, Special Collections Library, PHLH121; Two European men having a meal in a garden, early twentieth century, NMS, ACC-XXXX-12753.

³⁵ See also Two men drinking beer on the verandah of a home in the Dutch East Indies with a servant in the background, circa 1910, KITLV, 178818; ‘Always drink the best’, Straits Times, 26 January 1911.

³⁶ See also American woman and others in a car with servant boy attending, circa 1910–15, Philippines, Japan, and China Travel Album, University of Michigan Library, Special Collections Library, PHLH143; Rickshaw puller with a European passenger and attendant, late nineteenth–early twentieth century, NMS, ACC-2001-01343: A doctor and his Chinese servant at the doctor's house in Soebang, Java, circa 1907–12, KITLV, 41735.

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³⁸ Lowrie, Masters and Servants, p. 2.

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⁴⁵ For alleged cases of assault and theft of white employers by their Chinese ‘houseboys’, see Munn, ‘Hong Kong’, pp. 378–82; Lowrie, C., ‘White “men” and their Chinese “boys”: sexuality, masculinity and colonial power in Singapore and Darwin, 1880s–1930s’, History Australia, vol. 10, no. 1, 2013, pp. 53–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁴⁸ Butcher, J., The British in Malaya, 1880–1941: The Social History of a European Community in Colonial South-East Asia, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1979, p. 135Google Scholar; Stoler, Carnal Knowledge, p. 33.

⁴⁹ For a broad overview of sexual panics about ‘houseboys’ and white mistresses in colonial situations, see Lowrie, C., ‘White mistresses and Chinese “houseboys”: domestic politics in Singapore and Darwin from the 1910s to the 1930s’, in Colonization and Domestic Service: Contemporary and Historical Perspectives, Haskins, V. and Lowrie, C. (eds), Routledge, New York, 2015, pp. 210–12Google Scholar.

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⁵⁸ Fairchilds, C., Domestic Enemies: Servants and Their Masters in Old Regime France, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1984, p. 145Google Scholar; Munn, ‘Hong Kong’, p. 368.

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⁷⁴ Banerjee, ‘Down memory lane’, p. 682.

⁷⁵ I am drawing here on Jennifer Cushman's phrasing in her 1984 call for historians to study the Chinese community of Australia ‘on its own terms’ rather than in relation to white Australian racism and exploitation. Cushman, J., ‘A “colonial casualty”: the Chinese community in Australian historiography’, Asian Studies Association of Australia Review, vol. 7, no. 3, 1984, p. 101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷⁸ See, for example, ‘Dobie’, Government House, Darwin, circa 1911–18, Jean A. Austin Collection, NTL, PH0412-0002; A houseboy in Batavia, Java, circa 1870, photographer: Woodbury and Page, KITLV, 40577.

⁷⁹ For more information on the gender and ethnic division of domestic labour in Singapore, see Chin, In Service and Servitude, p. 71.

⁸⁰ Rice, M., Dean Worcester's Fantasy Islands: Photography, Film, and the Colonial Philippines, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2014, p. 81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Falconer, J., A Vision of the Past: A History of Early Photography in Singapore and Malaya, Times Editions, Singapore, 1987, p. 51Google Scholar.

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⁸⁶ See also The Holyoak family's pet monkey with a servant on the verandah of their home at Morrison Hill, Hong Kong, circa 1900, Hong Kong Museum of History, P1990.65.112; Victor and Jack, NACP, RG 200 S–BR, vol. 3A, 158.

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⁹¹ The National Archives of Singapore holds two interviews with Chinese men who worked as servants and one with a Malay man who worked as a driver. They also have approximately nine oral history interviews with Chinese women who worked as servants. Hong Kong University's Oral History Archive has four interviews with former Chinese female servants but none with Chinese male servants employed in private homes. The Northern Territory Archives Service holds at least three interviews with former Aboriginal female servants but none with Chinese or Aboriginal male servants. I could not locate any oral history collections for the Philippines.

⁹² ‘Transcript of interview with Lim Ming Joon’, 23 September 1983, NAS, ACC 000334/07, pp. 25–6. The interview was translated from Mandarin to English by EthnoLink Language Services, certified by the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NAATI), http://www.ethnolink.com.au/translation/naati-accredited-certified-translations-australia, [accessed 15 March 2018].

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⁹⁵ ‘Transcript of interview with Lim Ming Joon’, pp. 24, 36.

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