An earlier version of this paper was first presented at ‘Southeast Asian Responses to European Intrusions’, the British Institute in South-East Asia First Symposium, Singapore, January 1981.

¹ Minute, , , J. S.Mason, 21 July 1911Google Scholar, in British Adviser Kelantan, Miscellaneous [BAK(M)] 159/1911.

² Hj. Ibrahim Hj. Awang and Hj. Unus to British Adviser [BA], 3 December 1912, in British Adviser Kelantan [BAK] 657/1912).

³ In recent years there have been several articles which deal with the problem of capitalist penetration in the countryside. For background information see Amri, Shamsul, ‘The development of underdevelopment of the Malaysian peasantry’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 9, No. 4 (1979), pp. 434–54Google Scholar; Ibrahim, Wan Zawawi, ‘Capitalist penetration and the reconstitution of the Malay peasantry’, Paper presented to the Third National Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia,Griffith University,Brisbane,August 1980Google Scholar; Kaur, Amarjit and Talib, Shaharil, ‘Ulu Kelantan 1900–1940: The extractive economy and the peasantry’, Paper presented to the Eighth Conference, International Association of Historians of Asia,Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,August 1900Google Scholar; and Hashim, Wan, ‘The political economy of peasant transformation: Theoretical framework and a case study’, The Journal of Social Studies, 10 (10 1980), PP. 47–79.Google Scholar

⁴ Minute, , 7 April 1914, in BAK 918/1913.Google Scholar

⁵ See Kechik, Awang and Mas, Mek to H.H. the Sultan, 13 May 1922, in BAK(M) 124/1922 and minute, 17 June 1922, on the same file.Google Scholar

⁶ Minute, , 22 March 1914, in BAK 918/1913.Google Scholar

⁷ Government of Kelantan notification No. 64 of 1930 ‘Petition writers’, in BAK 624/1931.

⁸ See minutes and enclosures in BAK 154/1910.

⁹ Draft Desp., BA to H.H. the Raja Muda, 13 September 1914, in BAK 1008/1914.

¹⁰ Tukang Ali bin Omar and others to High Commissioner, January 1913, in BAK 84/1912.

¹¹ Desp., District Officer [DO] Ulu Kelantan to BA, 16 February 1917, in BAK 172/1917.

¹² See minutes in BAK 178/1931.

¹³ Minute, , 7 June 1933, in Land Office Pasir Puteh (LOPP) 211/1933.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Minute, , 31 July 1922, in BAK(M) 164/1922.Google Scholar

Loosely translated, this statement says that the petitioner has owned a piece of wet padi land at Temangan for the last 16 years. He has paid land rent amounting to $13.00 annually and without reason the Land Office, Kuala Kerai, Ulu Kelantan has seized his property. He had heard that peasant land which paid annual dues in Kelantan was never seized. Forfeiture only occurred when payment was not made for two to three years and even on those occasions when the land was auctioned it was returned to the original owners.

¹⁵ Osman bin Munar to BA, 12 July 1922, in BAK(M) 164/1922. The petitioner concludes by expressing the enormous difficulty he and his family would face if they could not plant padi. Others like him in Ulu Kelantan also depend on the will of God for their rice. If the government confiscates his land how will he find rice to live on?

¹⁶ Minute, , 23 May 1920, in BAK(M) 110/1920.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Ali bin Abdul Samad to BA, 13 May 1920, in BAK(M) 110/1920.

Briefly, the applicants state that they have for months been unsuccessful in making payments to the authorities. They have to travel back and forth. They state that some of them do not own padi land, while others do not possess enough land to feed growing families. They are uncertain of the future because they know no other way of life except the ancient practice of planting padi. The district of Peringat where they reside does not have any more state land left for use. However, there is available land in Pasir Puteh district where irrigated water is easily available from the neighbouring hills. They hope that they will be allowed to make the necessary payments quickly because the musim banggala (season for ploughing) is about to begin.

¹⁸ Desp., State Forest Officer, Kelantan to Suptd. of Lands, undated, enei. 2 in LOPP 344/1936.

¹⁹ Ibid.

²⁰ Hj. Idris bin Hj. Salleh and 2 others to BA, 8 March 1924, encl. I in BAK(M) 115/1924.

The three petitioners refer to a piece of kubang (shallow water-hole) in mukim Surau Pendik. They claim the land as ancestral land. On occasions they leave the land untended, especially when the area is flooded over. However, when the hollow ground collects water it is used to plant padi and serves as a natural fish pond. The area has also been planted with sago trees by their forefathers for roof-making. They emphasize that the area is not a river nor a padi alor (water canal) but was originally a kubang kerbau (a shallow water-hole used by buffaloes) claimed by their ancestors, who raised many buffaloes there. They had planted boundary stones to mark their claims. The fish pond also belonged to their ancestors. It is customary for inland dwellers to obtain from such places fish that is necessary to accompany rice as their food. People living by the coast, on the other hand, obtain fish from the sea. The sago trees were also planted by their forefathers and provide material for roofing. River-mouth dwellers, on the other hand, use material from the nipah plant for thatching. The petitioners being poor use material from the sago tree. They are annoyed that the tanah kubang which serves to plant padi and provides fish as food and materials for shelter is now claimed as state land. The three of them feel heavily burdened by this decision. They appeal to the sense of justice of the British Adviser who has the power to make decisions regarding state and peasant land. Furthermore, they point out that a fish pond and sago trees do not simply exist on their own without human intervention. The sago tree is a cultivated tree, unlike the keladi which grows on its own. Prior to this letter addressed to the British Adviser they had written unsuccessfully to the Land Office.

²¹ Desp., Suptd. of Lands to BA, 18 May 1918 and Desp., Suptd. of Lands to BA, 11 October 1918, in BAK 613/1918.

²² Bilal Ibrahim and 40 others to BA, 1 January 1938, encl. I in BAK 13/1938. The writers wish to impress upon the British Adviser that the area located in the padi fields was previously used to membelat (trap) fish. The people in the area are experts in this activity, from which they acquire food and income to pay government dues. However, recently fish trapping has been stopped by government order on the grounds that such activities spoil padi cultivation. However, they are of the opinion that rats and not fish trapping disrupt cultivation. The order to remove all fish traps would adversely effect their meagre subsistence income.

²³ Abu Bakar and 15 others Kota Lanas to BA, 7 September 1920, in BAK(M) 172/1920.

(1) The writers state that the irrigation canal was opened during the time of the late Raja Muda Tua Penambang. Since then, 4 Penggawa (circle-headmen) have served the area and none have dared to close the canal. It was during the time of Penggawa Drahman that the water course was kambus (blocked) and this caused problems in wet rice cultivation.

(2) They had already dug the earth but planting could not proceed because of the blocked water course.

(3) The padi seedlings had dried up because of the closure of the canal. They hope that the authorities will take immediate remedial measures and will not delay any more because the planting season has arrived. Further delay will cause serious lack of food and the consequent death of members of the family, as all God's people eat rice.

(4) If they are left hungry for lack of rice there will be chaos as people will leave the country and become like birds travelling aimlessly.

(5) They ask whether it is not the responsibility of the penghulu Kampung Merah to know the customs of the area. If the common people did what the penghulu had done they would be punished. The penghulu is irresponsible. The government could have chosen another site for the project and not closed the water course when cultivators were planting.

(6) They appeal to the British Adviser to instruct the village headman to widen and extend the existing canal. They are powerless to do anything. The government in appointing a village headman entrusted that person with the task of protecting and not of destroying the village like poison. If the village headman continues his actions then families will starve to death.

²⁴ Desp., Datuk Perdana Menteri to BA, 30 September 1925, encl. I in BAK(M) 303/1925.

When the Mentri Besar was in Ulu Kelantan he was shown three rubber permits by a villager who wanted him to explain for how much longer the document was valid. The Mentri Besar could not give an answer as the document was in the English language. He was informed that all other permits in Kuala Kerai were in the English language and many people spent half a day trying to get someone to read them to them. As a result of this incident, the Mentri Besar wondered whether Ulu Kelantan was a Malay country or even whether it was a part of the state of Kelantan.

²⁵ Draft Desp., BA to Datuk Perdana Menteri, undated, in BAK 403/1933.

²⁶ See Toh Kweng Hj. Omar Kebakat and 15 others to H.H. The Sultan, 29 July 1911, in BAK(M) 172/1911 and minutes on the file.

²⁷ Minute, , 5 March 1914, in BAK(M) 40/1914.Google Scholar

²⁸ Mat Amin Tok Kweng Tua Kg. Belimbing to BA, 26 February 1914, in BAK(M) 40/1914.

²⁹ Hj. Wan Ishak and nine others to BA, 29 February 1914, encl. I in BAK(M) 41/1914.

³⁰ BA to Hj. Wan Ishak, 6 March 1914, encl. 2 in BAK(M) 41/1914.

³¹ Desp., DO Ulu Kelantan to BA, 16 February 1917, in BAK 172/1917.

³² Minute, , 4 February 1930, in BAK 1461/1929.Google Scholar

³³ Awang Che Da bin Biru and 17 others to BA, I October 1929, in BAK 1461/1929. The Penggawa Tuan Kechik always gives himself airs as if he were a Raja and rules the Gunong district tyranically.

³⁴ Minute, , 4 February 1930, in BAK 1461/1929.Google Scholar

³⁵ Anonymous letter to BA, undated, encl. I in BAK 846/1933. This describes a person who has broken the rules of the state and disrupted the peace and harmony of the people living in that district.

³⁶ Desp., Suptd. of Lands to BA, 2 October 1933, encl. 2 in BAK 846/1933.

³⁷ Minute, 20 October 1929, in BAK(M) 199/1920.

³⁸ Hj. Taib and 18 others to H. H. The Sultan, 2 October 1920, in BAK(M) 199/1920.

Penggawa Mat Salleh is disliked by the villagers as he causes trouble for them. He has given land to the peasants but failed to issue them documents when they had cleared and planted the land. He would either resume the property or sell it. He has done this often and as a result many peasants have fled to the neighbouring state of Legeh. If the Penggawa continues in his position many others will leave the area.

³⁹ Desp., , Collector Land Revenue to BA, 15 July 1911, in BAK 464/1911.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Rakyat Ulu Kelantan to BA, 5 May 1931, encl. I in BAK 596/1931.

⁴¹ Boon Kah Chiang to Chief Police Officer, 20 June 1914, in BAK 784/1914.

⁴² The Residents of Pasir Mas to BA, undated, encl. I in BAK 683/1926.

The people of Pasir Mas district are fatherless. They are ignorant and poor and do not even know the date, month nor the year. Being peasants they are ignorant of the ways of the state and colonial laws. Some of them have deposited money for over a year at the land office in order to obtain state land to plant rubber and padi. Others have deposited money over the last ten, nine, eight and seven months for the same purpose but no results have been forthcoming. This has been a bad year for padi cultivation and the possibility of starvation exists. The rich and influential people get their requests granted quickly but the poor are kept waiting.

⁴³ Anonymous petition to BA, 25 March 1930, in BAK 559/1930.

This draws attention to the difficulties over payment of land rent at the land office, Kota Bharu. It is not possible to pay such dues in a single day. One must travel for three to four days and even then success is never ensured. Sometimes even after payment, receipts are difficult to obtain as it is claimed they are missing. Coffee money has to be given in advance for a fifty cents receipt. At the present moment many peasants go to the land office daily to pay land dues. Those who have paid coffee money obtain their receipts without difficulty, whereas those who have not suffer. The petitioner himself had waited for four days at the office to pay the dues without success. He appeals to the British Adviser to consider the fact that in order to pay land rent he has to meet the cost of travelling, eating and other debts. He is afraid that failure to pay will mean a fine of 50 cents for every land lot owned. The laws of the state are very azab (oppressive) on the peasantry.

⁴⁴ Mat Said bin Saman, Penghulu Kg. Pahi, Ulu Kelantan to H. H. The Sultan, 21 January 1930, encl. I in BAK 453/1930 and minute, 17 February 1930 on the file.

⁴⁵ See enclosures and minutes in BAK(M) 166/1920.

⁴⁶ Manager Sungei Bagan Estate to BA, 6 October 1910, in BAK 184/1910.

⁴⁷ See for example Bota-a and 12 others to H. H. The Sultan, 13 July 1911, in BAK(M) 159/1911.

⁴⁸ See for example, The Residents of Pasir Mas to BA, undated, encl. I in BAK 583/1926.

⁴⁹ Abdul Rahman and others to Datuk Setia Usaha Kerajaan Kelantan, 27 April 1927, encl. I in BAK 841/1927.

The etitioners appeal for their request to be considered. They are poor people who have suffered from the great flood (1926) and are unable to purchase state auctioned land, which is expensive. They urgently need the land requested to cultivate dry padi and the season to plant is rapidly approaching. A failure to obtain land would mean that they would [have to] starve. The previous years’ effort to plant padi under tenancy has proved insufficient to build a surplus because of the floods. They might have to consider leaving the state for Besut if they fail to obtain land for cultivation.

⁵⁰ Junoh bin Seri and others to BA, 28 June 1927, encl. 2 in BAK 819/1927.

⁵¹ Minute, , 4 Octoper 1927, in BAK 1352/1927.Google Scholar

⁵² Hj. Awang bin Jusoh and H. M. Yunus to BA, 18 September 1927, in BAK 1352/1927.

It is essential to obtain that piece of land for cattle grazing as there is no other suitable alternative site. The petitioners have never in the past failed to make the necessary payments to government for the use of the land. The district officer, Ulu Kelantan, has allocated them unsuitable land covered with jungle and alor (slow moving stream), which is water-logged even in the dry season, and the mud is too deep for buffalo breeding.