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Returning to the Middle Kingdom: Yung Wing and the recalled students of the Chinese Educational Mission to the United States*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2014

LIAN XI
LIAN XI*
Affiliation:
Duke University, North Carolina, United States of America Email: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article re-examines the frustrated Westernizing efforts of Yung Wing and the recalled students of the Chinese Educational Mission to the United States (1872–1881). It does so in response to recent scholarship (in both the Chinese and the English languages) which affirms the ‘transformative role’ of the returnees in late Qing reform and modernization. On the basis of a variety of sources, this article suggests, instead, that for those patriotic students returning to the Middle Kingdom, eager to bring about a fundamental change in its political system and rejuvenation of its civilization, disillusionment was often inevitable, and the choice—short of revolution—became one of either marginalization or co-option by the autocratic state. Despite all their achievements, China's earliest students of the West ultimately failed to set the country upon a new modernizing course—a failure that pointed, beyond itself, to an emerging (and subsequently persistent) pattern in the troubled relationship between the new, Westernized elite and the state in modern China.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 49 , Issue 1 , January 2015 , pp. 150 - 176
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

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Footnotes

*

Research for this paper was funded by the Faculty Research Grant from Hanover College. In the course of its evolution, the manuscript has benefited significantly from the criticisms of the anonymous reviewers. I also wish to thank my colleague and friend Melissa Eden for her comments and suggestions on the final draft of this article.

References

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8 Rhoads, Edward J., Stepping Forth into the World: The Chinese Educational Mission to the United States, 1872–81 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2011), pp. 213–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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11 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 148–49.

12 Yat-sen, Sun to Wing, Yung, February 1912, in Zhongshan Daxue Lishixi, Guangdongsheng Shehuikexueyuan Lishi Yanjiusuo and Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo (comps), Sun Zhongshan quanji (Complete Works of Sun Yat-sen) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981–86), Vol. 2, p. 144Google Scholar. The Chinese original reads: ‘懇請先生歸國, 而在此中華民國創立一完全之政府, 以鞏固我幼稚之共和。’ Yung Wing died on 22 April 1912.

13 For discussion of the ‘binary’ structure of historiography on Chinese modernity and the ‘extended’ nature of the 1898 reform movement, see Karl, Rebecca E. and Zarrow, Peter (eds), Rethinking the 1898 Reform Period: Political and Cultural Change in Late Qing China (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002), pp. 3–9Google Scholar.

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15 Ibid, pp. 40–41.

16 Yale College Class Books of the Class of 1854, quoted in Bieler, Stacey, ‘Patriots’ or ‘Traitors’? A History of American-Educated Chinese Students (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), p. 2Google Scholar.

17 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 96–112. See also Spence, Jonathan D., God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), pp. 269–70, 274, 277Google Scholar.

18 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 160–75.

19 Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, memorial to the Tongzhi Emperor, 27 February 1872 (19th day of the 1st moon, the 11th year of Tongzhi), in Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao congkan—yangwu yundong (Collected Sources on Modern Chinese History: Westernization Movement), 8 volumes (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 2000), Vol. 2, p. 157. The Chinese original reads: ‘挑選幼童出洋肄業, 固屬中華創始之舉, 抑亦古來未有之事。’

20 Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, memorial to the Tongzhi Emperor, 3 September 1871 (19th day of the 7th moon, the 10th year of Tongzhi), in Qing, Wenet al. (eds), Chouban yiwu shimo (A Complete Account of the Management of Barbarian Affairs), Tongzhi juan (The Volume for the Reign of the Tongzhi Emperor) (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2008), Chapter 82, pp. 46–47Google Scholar. See also Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao congkan—yangwu yundong, Vol. 2, pp. 153–57. The Chinese original reads: ‘擬選聰穎幼童。送泰西各國書院。學習軍政船政步算製造諸學 . . . 業成而歸, 使西人擅長之技。中國皆能諳悉。然後可以漸圖自強。’

21 Li Hongzhang, memorial, 1864, in Wen Qing, et al. (eds), Chouban yiwu shimo, Tongzhi juan, Chapter 25, p. 10. Li's words were: ‘師其法而不必盡用其人。’

22 Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, memorial to the Tongzhi Emperor, 3 September 1871, in Wen Qing et al. (eds), Chouban yiwu shimo, Tongzhi juan, Chapter 82, p. 50.

23 Ibid, Chapter 82, pp. 47–49.

24 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 35–39, 45, 54–55; ‘Yung Wing Marries a Connecticut Lady’, New York Times, 2 March 1875.

25 Wu Zideng, as quoted in Li Xisuo, Jindai Zhongguo de liuxuesheng, p. 53. Li incorrectly dates the arrival of Wu Zedeng as 1876. See also Lefaji, Zhongguo youtong liumeishi, p. 37. Chinese original: ‘適異忘本, 目無師長。’ ‘亦不能為中國用。’

26 Chen Lanbin, memorial to the Guangxu Emperor, 5 March 1881, in Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao congkan—yangwu yundong, Vol. 2, p. 165.

27 Li Hongzhang to Chen Lanbin, 10 May 1880, in Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao congkan—yangwu yundong, Vol. 2, p. 177. See also Teng and Fairbank (eds), China's Response to the West, p. 94.

28 Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao congkan—yangwu yundong, Vol. 2, p. 166. Chinese original: ‘遠適異國, 路歧絲染, 未免見異思遷。’

29 Twichell's diary, n.d., as quoted in La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 49–50; Li Hongzhang, ‘Lun chuyang yiye xuesheng fenbie cheliu (On Recalling Some Overseas Students while Letting Others Stay)’, in Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao congkan—yangwu yundong, Vol. 2, p. 179. See also General Grant, Tour Around the World, pp. 688–89, 702–03, as quoted in Bieler, ‘Patriots’ or ‘Traitors’?, p. 8.

30 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 50–51; Daqing liumei youtong, Part 3; Zhang Yufa, ‘Returned Chinese Students from America and the Chinese Leadership (1846–1949)’, Chinese Studies in History 35, 3 (Spring 2002), p. 56. La Fargue counted ‘over sixty’ students in college and technical schools. The two graduates were Zhan Tianyou and Ouyang Geng.

31 Liang Qichao, ‘Xindalu youji (Travels in America)’, in Qichao, Liang, Yinbingshi wenji dianjiao (Annotated Collection of Works from the Ice-drinker's Studio), annotators Song, Wuet al. (Kunming: Yunnan jiaoyu chubanshe, 2001), p. 1860Google Scholar; Hung, William, ‘Huang Tsun-Hsien's Poem “The Closure of the Educational Mission in America”’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 18, 1–2 (June 1955), p. 61CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Liang reported that a Chinese in Hartford had bought the signpost to prevent it from ending up in a museum to become yet another source of ‘national shame’ (guochi).

32 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, p. 55.

33 Reverend Joseph H. Twichell as quoted in Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 249–50.

34 Wong Kai Kah (Huang Kaijia) to Mrs Fannie Bartlett, 28 January 1882, in Thomas LaFargue Collection, <http://kaga.wsulibs.wsu.edu/cdm-5983/document.php?CISOROOT=/5983&CISOPTR=82&CISOSHOW=46&REC=3>, [accessed 28 March 2014]; Gao Zonglu, Zhongguo liumei youtong shuxin ji, p. 15. See also La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 53, 55–58.

35 Hung, ‘Huang Tsun-Hsien's Poem’, p. 54. Chinese original: ‘謂此泛駕馬, 銜勒乃能騎。’

36 Li Hongzhang, memorial, 17 April 1885, in Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao congkan—yangwu yundong, Vol. 2, p. 167.

37 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 59, 89–90; Lefaji, Zhongguo youtong liumeishi, p. 62.

38 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, p. 65.

39 Shenbao editorial, 22 September 1881, as quoted in Bieler, ‘Patriots’ or ‘Traitors’?, p. 13. ‘Zaren’ can also be translated as ‘mixed-up people’ or ‘cross-bred people’.

40 Li Hongzhang to Chen Lanbin, 6 August 1879, in Teng and Fairbank (eds), China's Response to the West, p. 94.

41 Ch’en, China and the West, p. 153.

42 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, p. 59.

43 Liang Ruhao to Eugene C. Gardner of Springfield, Massachusetts, n.d. (1883), as cited in Hinners, David G., Tong Shao-Yi and His Family: A Saga of Two Countries and Three Generations (Lanham: University Press of America, 1999), pp. 8–9Google Scholar.

44 Rhoads, Stepping Forth into the World, pp. 131–32.

45 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 109–10; Yan Jiesheng, ‘Cixi Xiling jizu xiuzhu tielu zhuanxian (Empress Dowager Cixi Had Special Railway Line Built to Offer Sacrifices to the Ancestors at the Western Tombs)’, Minzhu yu fazhi wang (Democracy and the Rule of Law Net), 21 October 2007, <http://www.mzyfz.com/news/times/q/20071021/133248_2.shtml>, [accessed 28 March 2014]. La Fargue incorrectly dated the construction to 1906–07.

46 Yung, Shang Him (Shangqian, Rong), The Chinese Educational Mission and Its Influence (Shanghai, 1939)Google Scholar. Reprinted in Rong Shangqian, Chuangban chuyangju ji guan xuesheng lishi (Translation of The Chinese Educational Mission and Its Influence), trans. Wang Minruo (Zhuhai: Zhuhai chubanshe, 2006), pp. 87–89.

47 Rhoads, Stepping Forth into the World, p. 200; Hoover, Herbert, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, 3 volumes (New York: Macmillan, 1951), Vol. 1, pp. 38–39Google Scholar, as quoted in Hinners, Tong Shao-Yi and His Family, pp. 11–12.

48 Hinners, Tong Shao-Yi and His Family, p. 15.

49 Ibid, pp. 13–14.

50 Hua-Chuen Mei, ‘The Returned Student in China’, Chinese Recorder (March 1917), p. 158, as quoted in Bieler, ‘Patriots’ or ‘Traitors’?, pp. 48–49.

51 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 117–23.

52 Pei Yansheng, ‘Cong Shunde Liang Songsheng shangshu shengping shiji caogao (shouchaoben) kan Qing waiwubu shangshu Liang Dunyan zaonian shiji (An Examination of the Early Achievements of Liang Dunyan, President of the Qing Ministry of Foreign Affairs, on the basis of A Draft Record of the Life and Achievements of Minister Liang Songsheng of Shunde)’, Beilun Dang’an wang (Beilun Archives Net), 6 March 2009, <http://blda.bl.gov.cn/oweb/detail.asp?id=2045&pg=0>, [accessed 26 May 2014].

53 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 90, 124–25.

54 Bays, Daniel H., China Enters the Twentieth Century: Chang Chih-tung and the Issues of a New Age, 1895–1909 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1978), p. 103CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 See Zhang Zhidong, Quanxue pian (On Learning), in Shuyi, Yuanet. al. (comps) Zhang Zhidong quanji (Complete Works of Zhang Zhidong) (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe, 1998), Vol. 12, p. 9737Google Scholar. Zhang argues that one year of overseas studies was better than three years spent in a Chinese school.

56 Ibid, Vol. 12, p. 9715. The three cardinal ‘guides’ are: ‘ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife’; the five constant virtues are ‘benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity’.

57 Pei Yansheng, ‘Qing Waiwubu shangshu Liang Dunyan de muyou shengya ji Liang Dunyan Lüli kanwu (The [Earlier] Career as Aide [to Zhang Zhidong] of Liang Dunyan, President of the Qing Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Corrections to Liang Dunyan's Resume)’, Dang’anxue tongxun (Archive Science Bulletin), No. 1, 2008.

58 Gilbert Reid, ‘Graduates of Our Colleges in High Posts in China’, New York Times, 16 October 1910.

59 Bays, China Enters the Twentieth Century, pp. 216–17.

60 Louis T. Sigel, ‘T’ang Shao-yi (1860–1938): The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism’, PhD thesis, Harvard University, 1972, pp. 367–68, as quoted in Hinners, Tong Shao-Yi and His Family, p. 54.

61 Worthy, Edmund H. Jr., ‘Yung Wing in America’, Pacific Historical Review 34 (1965), pp. 277, 282CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 220–22; La Fargue, China's First Hundred, p. 61.

63 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 224–26.

64 Ibid, pp. 227–28.

65 Ibid, pp. 229–36; Gu Changsheng, Rong Hong, p. 62; Worthy, ‘Yung Wing in America’, p. 283.

66 Weng Tonghe, diary entry dated the 3rd day of the 4th moon, the 22nd year of Guangxu (1896), as quoted in Lefaji, Zhongguo youtong liumeishi, pp. 26n9. Weng's words were ‘居然洋人矣!’

67 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 237–38. See also Gu Changsheng, Rong Hong, pp. 64–65.

68 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 241–42.

69 Bays, China Enters the Twentieth Century, pp. 80–81; Gu Changsheng, Rong Hong, p. 69.

70 Sun Yat-sen, ‘Yu Hengbin moujun de tanhua (Conversations with a Gentleman from Yokohama)’, August 1900, in Sun Zhongshan quanji, Vol. 1, p. 198.

71 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, pp. 241–42; ‘Sues Dr. Yung Wing’, New York Times, 22 February 1905.

72 Worthy, ‘Yung Wing in America’, pp. 283–85.

73 Hinners, Tong Shao-Yi and His Family, pp. 35–36; Lefaji, Zhongguo youtong liumeishi, p. 151n3. As La Fargue puts it, the fate of the former Mission students was that of most pioneers: ‘Once the trail has been broken, those who follow have little use for the trail-makers.’ See La Fargue, China's First Hundred, p. 151.

74 Hinners, Tong Shao-Yi and His Family, p. 36.

75 John Newell Jordan to Langley, Shanghai, 1 January 1915, John Newell Jordan Papers, as quoted in Young, Ernest P., The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k’ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977), p. 207Google Scholar.

76 La Fargue, China's First Hundred, pp. 130–32, 155.

77 ‘Chinese Credit Hartford with Being the Cradle of Chinese Republic’, Hartford Daily Times, 16 February 1929, as quoted in Bieler, ‘Patriots’ or ‘Traitors’?, p. 10.

78 Duke, Benjamin C., History of Modern Japanese Education: Constructing the National School, 1872–1890 (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2009), pp. 46, 319Google Scholar. A prime example of the transformative role that returned Japanese students played in Meiji reforms is the career of Mori Arinori, who studied in England in the 1860s. In the 1880s, he ‘streamlined an entire system of education’ based on the German model, which remained in place until the Second World War. See also Cobbing, Andrew, The Satsuma Students in Britain: Japan's Early Search for the Essence of the West (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. xiv, 122Google Scholar.

79 Reynolds, Douglas R., China, 1898–1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 109–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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81 The term ‘reform within tradition’, used by Meienberger, Norbert, The Emergence of Constitutional Government in China (1905–1908): The Concept Sanctioned by the Empress Dowager Tz’u-hsi (Bern: Peter Lang, 1980), pp. 13–14Google Scholar, is cited in Reynolds, China, 1898–1912, p. 191. See also Levenson, Joseph R., Confucian China and Its Modern Fate: The Problem of Intellectual Continuity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958), p. 69Google Scholar.

82 For a discussion of returned students as misfits under the rule of both the Nationalists and the Communists, see Bieler, ‘Patriots’ or ‘Traitors’?, pp. 330, 336–37. A prominent returnee during the Mao years was Zhang Bojun (1895–1969), who had studied in Germany and served as minister of communications in the 1950s. He was denounced as a ‘Rightist’ in 1957 and subsequently removed from power. See Xie Shengyou, ‘Liangge liude haigui buzhang (Two Ministers Who Studied in Germany)’, Zhongguo baodao zhoukan (China Report Weekly), 12 May 2011, <http://www.china-week.com/html/5983.htm>, [accessed 23 May 2014].

83 Huiyao, Wang, Zhongguo liuxue rencai fazhang baogao (2009) (A Report on the Cultivation of Returnee Talents [2009]) (Beijing: Jixie gongye chubanshe, 2009), pp. iii–ivGoogle Scholar.

84 Huiyao, Wang, ‘Dangdai Zhongguo haigui (Contemporary Chinese Returnees)’ (Beijing: Zhongguo fazhan chubanshe, 2007), ‘Preface’, <http://vip.book.sina.com.cn/book/chapter_48894_34299.html>, [accessed 28 March 2014]Google Scholar.

85 Wang Huiyao, Zhongguo liuxue rencai fazhang baogao (2009), p. iii. The Chinese translation reads ‘以西方之學術，灌輸于中國，使中國日趨于文明富強之境。’

86 These include Chen Zhu, minister of health; Wan Gang, minister of science and technology; and Zhou Ji, former minister of education. For a list of contemporary returnees in senior government positions, see Li Liang and Dong Shuhua, ‘Xinyidai “haigui” guanyuan jiandan zhengtan zhongren (New Generation of “Returnee” Officials Increasingly Assume Key Political Posts)’, Renminwang (People's Net), 1 July 2005, <http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper2836/15248/1352053.html>, [accessed 28 March 2014].

87 Wang Huiyao, Zhongguo liuxue rencai fazhang baogao (2009), p. 7.

88 Liu Xia, ‘Zhengtan haigui jueqi: zhengyi xuanwo zhong qianxing (Returnees Rising in Politics: Pressing Forward Through a Vortex of Controversies)’, Renmin luntan zhenglun shuangzhoukan (People's Forum on Politics Bi-weekly), 10 October 2011, <http://21ccom.net/articles/zgyj/xzmj/article_2011101046712.html>, [accessed 28 March 2014].

89 See Huiyao, Wang (ed.), Binfen haigui: baiwei haigui tan shiye yu rensheng (Reflections of One Hundred Chinese Returnees) (Beijing: Zhongguo fazhan chubanshe, 2007), Chapter 9 ‘Haigui congzheng (Haigui in Politics)’, pp. iv–2Google Scholar. ‘Haigui canyu dangzheng gongzuo zuida kunnan shi tizhixing pingzhang (Structural Barriers are the Chief Obstacle for Participation in the Work of the Party and the Government by the Returnees)’, <http://vip.book.sina.com.cn/book/chapter_48894_34302.html>, [accessed 28 March 2014]. Author's observations of Health Minister Chen Zhu's speech and responses to questions at the Harvard America-China Health Summit, Boston, 21 September 2011.