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² For example, David Holm discusses the development of yangge (a form of folk dance) in the Communist base areas during the 1940s in Art and Ideology in Revolutionary China (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), and Richard Curt Kraus talks about the link between calligraphy and politics inGoogle ScholarBrushes with Power: Modern Politics and the Chinese Art of Calligraphy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991).Google Scholar

³ It is true that Richard Kraus touches on the relationship between politics and music in his book Pianos and Politics in China: Middle-Class Ambitions and the Struggle over Western Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), but his primary focus is on the impact of the piano on Chinese culture and the relationship between China's urban middle class and its music. The book has little to say about the use of songs by the CCP.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Liangmu, Liu, ‘Zai ban xu’ (Preface to the second edition), in Qingnian geji (Collected songs of the youth) (N.p.: Qingnian xiehui xiaohuizu, 1937).Google Scholar See also Liu, , ‘Kangzhan qizhong de geyong gongzuo’ (Song propaganda work during the War of Resistance), Dikang sanrikan (Resistance three-day press) 7 (9 09 1937): 10.Google Scholar

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¹² For a brief history of the Chinese wartime drama propaganda activities, see my War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern China, 1937–1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), chap. 3.Google Scholar

¹³ See Shen, Hong, Kangzhan shinian lai Zhongguo de xiju yundong yu jiaoyu (The Chinese drama movement and education in the decade since the War of Resistance) (Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1948), p. 5. For an English biography of Xian, see Kraus, Pianos and Politics in China, chap. 2.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Xinghai, Xian, ‘Wo zenyang xuexi yinyue’ (How I studied music), in Guanyu Xinghai (About Xinghai), ed. Bai, Xia (Shanghai: Lianyi chubanshe, 1950), pp. 113–14.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Schwarz, Boris, Music and Musicial Life in Soviet Russia, 1917–1981 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), enlarged ed., p. 181.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Reis, Claire R., Composers, Conductors, and Critics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955).Google Scholar See also Downes, Olin, ‘Composers on War’, New York Times, 10 10 1943, sect. 2, p. 7.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Sessions, Roger, ‘No More Business-As-Usual’, Modern Music 19.3 (03–04 1942): 162.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ji, Lü, ‘Zhongguo xin yinyue de zhanwang’ (The outlook of China's new music), Guangming (The light) 1.5 (10 08 1936): 299, 301.Google Scholar

¹⁹ See Huanan jinxingqu (South China march) (Hong Kong: Zhongguo yinyue chubanshe, 1949), pp. 12–16. For a list of songbooks and mimeographed materials published in the border regions,Google Scholar see Jiefangqu genjudi tushu mulu (A bibliography of books and pictorials published in the liberated areas), ed. tushuguan, Zhongguo renmin daxue (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue chubanshe, 1989), pp. 258–61.Google Scholar

²⁰ For the division method, see the later collection Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji (Selected songs of the resistance movement against Japan), ed. bianjibu, Jiefangjun gequ xuanji (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1957), 4 vols.Google Scholar

²¹ See Scott, James C., Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), esp. chaps. 2–3.Google Scholar

²² Zedong, Mao, ‘Talks at the Yenan Forum on Literature and Art’, in Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1967), 3: 84.Google Scholar

²³ See discussion in my Going to the People: Chinese Intellectuals and Folk Literature, 1918–1937 (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1985).Google Scholar

²⁴ See Zhi, Jia, ‘Lao Suqu de in'ge’ (Folk songs in the old Jiangxi Soviet area), Minjian wenyi jikan (Collected essays on folk literature and art) I (1950): 46–57.Google Scholar

²⁵ Qifang, He, He Qifang wenji (Collected writings of He Qifang) (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1983), 4: 146.Google Scholar

²⁶ Levine, Lawrence, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 239, 240.Google Scholar

²⁷ Xinghai, Xian, ‘Wo xuexi yinyue de jingguo’ (How I studied music), in Xian Xinghai quanji (Complete works of Xinghai, Xian), ed. ‘Xian Xinghai quanji’ bianji weiyuanhui (N.p.: Guangdong gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 1989), I: 106.Google Scholar

²⁸ See Jiefang ribao (Liberation daily), 21 January 1943, p. 2; see alsoGoogle ScholarGuolin, Sun and Guifang, Cao (eds), Mao Zedong wenyi sixiang zhiyinxia de Yan'an wenyi (Yan'an literature and art guided by Mao Zedong's literary thoughts) (Shijiazhuang: Huashan wenyi chubanshe, 1992), pp. 436–7.Google Scholar

²⁹ Xinghai, Xian, ‘Min'ge yu Zhongguo yinyue’ (Folk songs and China's new music), in Renmin geshou Xian Xinghai (A people's musician: Xian Xinghai), ed. Yuan, Qiu (Beijing: Shenghuo, dushu, xinzhi, Sanlian shudian, 1949), p. 27.Google Scholar

³⁰ The violinist Ma Sicong, for example, echoed the same view; see Ma, , ‘Min'ge yu Zhongguo yinyue chuangzao wenti’ (Folk songs and the issues of creating Chinese music), Bitan (Sketches) 5 (1 11 1941): 6–7.Google Scholar

³¹ See Serbo-Croatian Heroic Songs, collected by Milman Parry, edited by Lord, Albert B., vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1954).Google Scholar

³² See Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji, 4 vols.Google Scholar

³³ See Shaanbei min'ge xuan (Selected folk songs of northern Shaanxi), ed. xueyuan, Lu Xun wenyi (N.p.: Xinhua shudian, 1949), p. 1.Google Scholar

³⁴ Songwriters in the American Civil War, for example, often wrote songs by setting words to existing tunes; so did Soviet musicians after the Bolshevik Revolution. See Bowman, Kent A., Voices of Combat: A Centuy of Liberty and War Songs, 1765–1865 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), chap. 6; andGoogle ScholarStites, Richard, Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 46.Google Scholar

³⁵ Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji, 2: 119.

³⁶ Ibid., pp. 156–7, 254.

³⁷ Ibid., p. 132.

³⁸ See, for example, ‘Qunzhong shi women de kaoshan’ (The masses are our backers, 1944), in Ibid., p. 216.

³⁹ Ibid., p. 119. The solidarity between the masses and the troops fighting at the front was repeatedly sung in other Communist-controlled regions and units as well—for example, in the New Fourth Army songs in Anhui, see Ibid., 4: 87.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 2:139–40.

⁴¹ See Ibid., pp. 134–5; 4: 141, and Kangzhan gequxuan (Selected War of Resistance songs) (Beijing: Yinyue chubanshe, 1958), 3:25–6.Google Scholar

⁴² Tse-tung, Mao, ‘On Production by the Army for Its Own Support and on the Importance of the Great Movements for Rectification and for Production’, in Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung 3:276.Google Scholar

⁴³ See Hagen, Mark von, ‘Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship: From Defending the Revolution to Building Socialism’, in Russia in the Era of NEP: Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture, ed. Fitzpatrick, Sheila, Rabinowitch, Alexander, and Stites, Richard (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 167.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ Xuanji, 3:134.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Ibid., 4:151–2.

⁴⁶ Tse-tung, Mao, ‘On Protracted War’, in Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung 2:143.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji, 3:12.

⁴⁸ See Xue, Ying (ed.), Hongjun geshengji (Songs of the Red Army) (Shanghai: Rexue chubanshe, 1938), p. 11. The lyrics of the song, according to Jacques Guillermaz, were drawn up in the spring of 1928;Google Scholar see Guillermaz, , ‘The Soldier’, in Mao Tse-tung in the Scales of History, ed. Wilson, Dick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 137 n.34. For the folk origin of the song,Google Scholar see Zhongguo jiefangqu wenyi dacidian (The big dictionary on literature and art in China's liberated areas) (Hefei: Anhui wenyi chubanshe, 1992), pp. 415–16.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ In Jiefang zhanzheng shiqi gequ xuanji (Selected songs of the Liberation War period) (Beijing: Yinyue chubanshe, 1959), 2:61.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji, 4:23.

⁵¹ Ibid., 2:233.

⁵² Ibid., pp. 233–5.

⁵³ See Mosse, George, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 7, 47, 74–7.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Kangzhan gequxuan, 3:23–4.

⁵⁵ As in the case of the Albert Leo Schlageter monument, whose circular shape was built to signify ‘a community, the people gathered within’. See discussion in Taylor, Robert R., The Word in Stone: The Role of Architecture in the National Socialist Ideology (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1974), pp. 191–2.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Although hardly any of the designs moved beyond the drawing-board stage during the difficult war years, some were built later in the 1950s. See Tarkhanov, Alexei and Kavtaradze, Sergei, Architecture of the Stalin Era (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1992), pp. 97–115, esp. p. 110.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ For a detailed list of monuments and memorial halls built by the Chinese Communists mostly after see Guofu, Liu and Jingfu, Wei (eds), Guohun dian (A dictionary of national spirit) (Jilin: Jilin renmin chubanshe, 1993).Google Scholar

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⁶¹ See Fuller, J. G., Troop Morale and Popular Culture in the British and Dominion Armies, 1914–1918 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), esp. chaps. 6–7, andGoogle ScholarFussell, Paul, Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), esp. chap. 18.Google Scholar

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⁶³ Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji, 3:23.

⁶⁴ Ibid., 2:128.

⁶⁵ Ibid., 2:12–129.

⁶⁶ Under the influence of Confucian philosophy, China's tradition placed the importance of the civil (wen) far above the military (wu). For a brief discussion, see Fairbank, John K., ‘Introduction: Varieties of the Chinese Military Experience’, in Chinese Ways in Warfare, ed. Kierman, Frank A. Jr and Fairbank, John K. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 1–26, esp. pp. 2–9.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Mao, of course, was not the only Communist leader to be singled out for praise in songs. For example, General Zhu De received public adulation as well. See Peiran, Zhou (ed.), Jiefang gexuan (Selected songs of the liberation) (N.p.: Taofen shudian, 1948), 2:1. But Mao definitely held center stage in the repertoire.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Ibid., 2:18.

⁶⁹ Quoted in Tumarkin, Nina, ‘The Myth of Lenin during the Civil War Years’, in Bolshevik Culture: Experiment and Order in the Russian Revolution, ed. Gleason, Abbott, Kenez, Peter, and Stites, Richard (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), p. 88.Google Scholar

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⁷¹ Ibid., 2:17.

⁷² Ibid., 3:96.

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⁷⁵ In Peiran, Zhou (ed.), Jiefang gexuan, 2:19–21.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ In Jiefang gesheng (Songs of the liberation), ed. yinyueshe, Jin-Cha-Ji (Zhangjiakou: Xinhua shudian Jin-Cha-Ji fendian, 1946), 3:7.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ibid., p. 10.

⁷⁸ In Changjiang gesheng (Songs of the Yangzi River), ed. xiehui, Wuhanshi yinyue gongzuozhe (Hankou: Xinhua shudian zhongnan zongfendian, 1950), 2:22.Google Scholar

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⁸¹ Mu, Gong, ‘Guanyu ‘Dongfang hong’ gequ chuangzuo de xin’ (A letter about the writing of the song ‘The East Is Red’), Yan'an wenyi yanjiu (Research on Yan'an literature and art) 26 (7 02 1991): 58–60, 19.Google Scholar

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⁸⁴ See ‘Bianqu hao’ (How wonderful is the border region), in Qunzhong gequ (People's songs), nos. 1–2, ed. gequshe, Qunzhong and fuwubu, Dazhong wenhua (N.p.: Yingong hezuoshe, n.d.), p. 1.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Jiefang gesheng, 3:20–1.

⁸⁶ Jiefang zhige (Songs of the liberation), ed. Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun shisan bingtuan zhengzhibu xuanchuandi (N.p., n.d.), pp. 61–3.Google Scholar

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⁸⁸ See Jiefang ribao, 25 August 1943, p. 4. See also Hua Junwu's cartoons on the same theme, Jiefang ribao, 21 August 1943, p. 4; 6 June 1944, p. 4.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Jiefang zhige, pp. 13, 15, 21, 26.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Jiefang hanzheng shiqi gequ xuanji, 2:7.

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⁹³ See ‘Du Changjiang’ (Crossing the Yangzi), in Jiangnan jinxingqu (South China marching songs) (Hong Kong: Zhongguo yinyue chuban gongsi, 1949), p. 14.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ See ‘Jinjun qu’ (Marching song), in Jiefang zhanzheng shiqi gequ xuanji (Beijing: Yinyue chubanshe, 1959), 2:3.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ See ‘Jiefangjun dao Guangdong’ (The Liberation Army arrives in Guangdong), in Huanan jinxingqu (South China marching songs) (Hong Kong: Zhongguo yinyue chuban gongsi, 1949), p. 12.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ For a discussion of the influence of a number of popular culture forms such as spoken dramas and political cartoons in the Communist-controlled areas during the War of Resistance, see my War and Popular Culture, chap. 6.

⁹⁷ Mu, Gong, ‘Wo yu Zheng Lücheng xiejunge’ (Zheng Lücheng and I composed military songs), in Yan'an wenyi huyilu (Reminiscences of Yan'an literature and art), ed. Keen, Ai (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1992), pp. 318–21.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Jiefang ribao, 3 July 1941, p. 2.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Jiefang ribao, 28 September 1942, p. 2.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Jiefang ribao, 22 August 1942, p. 2.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Jiefang ribao, 21 October 1945, p. 4.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Ji, Lü, ‘Luyi de yinyue guiji’ (Luyi's musical course), in Yan'an wenyi huyilu, ed. Keen, Ai, pp. 288–95, esp. p. 295.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁴ For instance, the Resistance Drama Troupe (Kangdi jushe), which was active along the Peiping-Suiyuan Railway in 1946, was skillful in using the songs for the Communist cause. See Jiefang gesheng, 3: 35.

¹⁰⁵ See, for example, Jin-Cha-Ji huabao (Shanxi-Chahaer-Hebei pictorial) 5 (30 03 1944): n.p.Google ScholarFor newspapers, see Xinhua ribao (New China daily), 27 July 1938, p. 4; 1 June 1940, p. 4; Jiefang ribao, 5 Febryary 1943, p. 4; 5 November 1943, p. 4.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁷ The popularity of ‘The March of the Volunteers’, for example, can be seen in a picture of Liu Liangmu conducting thousands of people singing the song in a public square in Shanghai in 1936, see quanji, Nie Er (The complete work of Nie Er), ed. ‘Nie Er quanji’ bianji weiyuanhui (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, Renmin yinyue chubanshe, 1985), vol. 2, n. p.Google Scholar

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