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¹⁰ Heller, Patrick, Harilal, K. N. and Choudhury, Shubham, ‘Building Local Democracy: Evaluating the Impact of Decentralization in Kerala, India’ World Development 35, no. 4 (2007), pp. 626–648Google Scholar; Biju, B. L., ‘Public Sphere and Participatory Development: A Critical Space for the Left in Kerala’ Mainstream XLV, no. 25 (2007). Available at http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article163.html (accessed 23 September, 2010).Google Scholar

¹¹ Nambutiripad, Kanipayyur Sankaran, Ente Smaranakal, vol. 1 [Memoirs], (Panchangom Press, Kunnamkulam, 1965)Google Scholar.

¹² Devika, J., En-Gendering Individuals: The Language of Re-forming in Early Twentieth Century Keralam (Orient Longman, Hyderabad, 2007)Google Scholar.

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¹⁴ Ibid, pp. 175–191.

¹⁵ Saradamoni, K., ‘Kerala Model: Time for Rethinking’, In Oommen, M. A. (ed.), Rethinking Development, vol. I (Institute of Social Sciences and Concept Publishers, New Delhi, 1999), pp. 159–174Google Scholar; Velayudhan, Meera, ‘Reform, Law and Gendered Identity’, in Oommen, M. A (ed.), Rethinking Development, vol. I (Institute of Social Sciences and Concept Publishers, New Delhi, 1999), pp. 60–72Google Scholar.

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¹⁷ Jeffrey, Robin, Politics, Women and Well-being: How Kerala became a ‘Model’ (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2003), p. 94Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Devika, En-Gendering Individuals, p. 198.

¹⁹ Femininity and success in police duties appeared to be inversely proportional. Contrast, for instance, the representation of the successful unfeminine policewomen in Sundaram, ‘Penpolice Geetha’ [Song of the Female Police] (Naradar 1, no. 9 (1941), pp. 12–13) and the feminine but unsuccessful policewoman in Gopi, ‘PC Kamalam’ [Police Constable Kamalam], Vijayabhanu 4, no. 12 (1940), pp. 19–20. However, women needy for a steady job did not shy away from the opportunity. In 1968, an interview for five policewomen was held, for which 2,000 applications were received; 385 women candidates were called. The candidates, however, revealed to the reporter that they chose this job only because other options were absent (Mathrubhumi, 21 February 1968, p. 3).

²⁰ Amma, K. Saraswati [1945], Lokatinte Purogati [The Progress of the World], In Saraswati Ammayude Tirnahedutta Kritikal [Selected Works] (D C Books, Kottayam, 2001), pp. 188–198Google Scholar.

²¹ B. Pachi Amma [1921] ‘Women and Freedom’ in Devika (ed.), Her-Self: Early Writings on Gender by Malayalee Women, pp. 52–60.

²² For instance, Soma Krishna Pillai, ‘Veettammamaar Vazhittiruvil’ [Housewives at Crossroads], Malayala Manorama, 10 October 1969, p. 6.

²³ Joseph Annamma, Women's Column, Malayala Manorama, 6 July 1969, p. IV.

²⁴ Malayala Manorama, 19 September 1969, p. 6; 26 September 1969, p. 6.

²⁵ See, for instance, Osella and Osella, Social Mobility in Kerala.

²⁶ This is powerfully captured in a photo essay by Sikhera, Jipson, ‘Gender Disparity in Kerala: Some Visual Images’, in Mukhopadhyay, Swapna (ed.), The Enigma of the Kerala Woman: The Failed Promise of Literacy (Social Science Press, New Delhi, 2007), pp. 179–184Google Scholar.

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²⁹ Lindberg, Anna, Experience and Identity: A Historical Account of Class, Caste and Gender among the Cashew Workers of Kerala 1930–2000 (Historika Media, Lund, 2001)Google Scholar.

³⁰ Anna Chandy, contesting in the 1931 elections in Travancore, had to face a powerful smear campaign. See Editorial, Nazrani Deepika, 16 June 1931.

³¹ K. Gomathy, ‘Streekalum Nivarttanavum’ [Women and the Abstention Movement], Malayala Manorama, 20 April 1933, p. 3.

³² Annie Thayyil, a prominent woman politician of the 1950s, reminded her reader in an article that her childlessness did not indicate a wasteful, undisciplined life. ‘My books are my children,’ she wrote. ‘Your children will die. Mine will not. I will not allow people to forget me.’ Thayyil, Annie, Ee Kattukal Ninakkullataanu [These Letters Are For You], vol. 4 (Kottayam, 1954), p. 38Google Scholar.

³³ Jeffrey, Robin, Politics, Women and Wellbeing, (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2003)Google Scholar.

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³⁶ Nazrani Deepika, 28 January 1959, p. 3.

³⁷ Nazrani Deepika, 8 June 1954, p. 2.

³⁸ The number of women members in the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) now exceeds the 33 per cent reservation, as women also contest general seats.

³⁹ At present, the Kudumbashree network consists of 183,362 neighbourhood groups, organized under 1,057 Community Development Societies; Sarada Muraleedharan ‘Gender – Swayampadhana Prakriya’ [Gender – Self-learning], presentation made at one-day workshop on Gender Self-Learning, 15 September 2007.

⁴⁰ An early review of the Kudumbashree observed that ‘Women tend to select traditional products, which have very low profit margins’, but some of the micro-enterprises challenged existing gender stereotypes, such as water meter repairing units by women and mason-groups; Reynders, Jan, Ahmed, Sara, Mittal, Subhash, Shah, Hina and Datta, Tapas, Banking on the Potentials: Kudumbashree: Kerala's State Poverty Alleviation Mission (The Royal Netherlands Embassy, New Delhi, 2002), p. 29Google Scholar; However, according to a recent internal assessment, it was seen that low-income-yielding traditional industries continue to predominate; Muraleedharan, ‘Gender – Swayampadhana Prakriya’.

⁴¹ Devika, J. and Thampi, Binitha V., ‘Between “Empowerment” and “Liberation”: The Kudumbashree Initiative in Kerala’ Indian Journal of Gender Studies 14, no. 1 (2007), pp. 33–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴² Interestingly, the Dutch review team observed: ‘It is reported that Kudumbashree's entrepreneurs’ groups sometimes come to the Panchayat meetings in their ‘uniform’, forming a block as poor women. Gram Panchayats apparently have complained about this, indicating their growing power.’ (Reynders et al., Banking on the Potentials, p. 37). In our interviews, we were often told that the demand that Kudumbashree women wear the Kerala saree to meetings was often made by the Panchayat members, and sometimes actively resisted. Perhaps this sartorial demand was indeed a response to the Kudumbashree women's reported attempt at self-assertion, observed by the review team! However, such norms are under review or abandoned in many panchayats following criticism in the public.

⁴³ Reynders et al., Banking on the Potentials, p. 35.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ Thampi, Binitha V., Economic Role of Women and Its Impact on Child Health and Care: A Study in Kerala, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to ISEC, Bangalore (2007)Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ ‘In the few regular meetings which the Review team was able to attend, we saw that after the money transactions discussion was limited to who needed loans or the planning of cultural festivals, but that there was no discussion on gender rights.’ Reynders et al., Banking on the Potentials, p. 36.

⁴⁷ This is not a recent development: ‘Social issues, mainly social gatherings to be organized on any religious/national festivals are discussed but also individual problems that members are facing like serious sickness in the family.’ Reynders et al., Banking on the Potentials, p. 18.

⁴⁸ Anna Lindberg, Experience and Identity.

⁴⁹ Sumit Mazumdar and M. Guruswamy, Female Labour Force Participation in Kerala: Problems and Prospects, paper presented at the Annual Meeting Programme, Population Association of America, Westin Bonaventure, Los Angeles, CA, 30 March–1 April 2006; Devi, Lakshmi, Education, Employment and Job Preferences of Women in Kerala: A Micro Level Study, Discussion Paper no. 42 (Kerala Research Programme on Local-Level Development, Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, 2001)Google Scholar.

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⁵⁴ T. M. Thomas Isaac, ‘Campaign for Democratic Decentralization in Kerala: An Assessment from the Perspective of Empowered Deliberative Democracy’, available at http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~wright/Isaacpaper.PDF (2000; accessed 23 September 2010); also see Balan, P. P. and Raj, M. Retna (eds.), Decentralised Governance and Poverty Reduction: Lessons from Kerala (Kerala Institute of Local Administration, Thrissur, 2006)Google Scholar.

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⁵⁸ Ibid., Table 22.6.

⁵⁹ Jose, A. V., ‘Origin of Trade Unionism among the Agricultural Labourers in Kerala’ Social Scientist 5, no. 12 (1977), pp. 24–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar; B. R. P. Bhaskar, ‘Kerala Letter: Changing Grammar of Protest Stumps Political Establishment’, 14 April 2008.

⁶⁰ Sharma, ‘Kerala's Decentralisation’, p. 3841; Nair, People's Planning: The Kerala Experience, p. 37; Ramachandran, Padma, Study of Decision-Making Process in Selected Panchayats and Municipalities under the People's Planning Programme, Discussion Paper no. 68 (Kerala Research Programme on Local-level Development, Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004)Google Scholar; Centre for Socio-economic and Environmental Studies, Centre for Rural Management and SDC-CapDecK, ‘Emerging Issues in Panchayati Raj in Kerala: A Study Report’ (SDC-CapDecK, Thiruvananthapuram, 2003).

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⁶² Devika, En-Gendering Individuals.

⁶³ While some studies have found much less bias in beneficiary selection along political lines, and corruption, as well, in Kerala's LSGIs, they do admit that a clear political affiliation to the ruling party is certainly an advantage. One study, a comparison between a Left-dominated and a non-Left-dominated panchayat, observed that party involvement at all levels was evident in the former, and while non-Left people were not necessarily excluded, the power to include or exclude lay overwhelmingly with the local party. Nair, People's Planning: The Kerala Experience.

⁶⁴ It may be interesting to probe the experience of women PRI functionaries who have defied these tendencies; at this stage of fieldwork, we are unable to make clear statements on their experience.