No CrossRef data available.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 21 May 2019
This article examines the transplantation of America's ‘manly’ civilization to 1920s Fujian, China, through the experiences of Harry R. Caldwell (1876–1970), a Methodist missionary whose hunting was central to his social evangelism. With his rifle, Caldwell protected Chinese villagers from man-eating tigers, taught them how to hunt tigers effectively, and enabled them to reconceptualize their relationships with tigers and nature. By engaging the American Museum of Natural History in his specimen collection and hunt for the mythical ‘Blue Tiger’, Caldwell introduced an economy of natural expeditions to the villagers who were hired to support the hunt. This article argues that Caldwell's experiences as both a missionary and a hunter in Fujian was an extension, or negotiation, of his rugged masculinity, which was fostered in his Tennessee home town. He identified as both a Christian and a hunter, and he did not see these parts of himself as distinct. A comparison between Caldwell and his contemporary, the British naturalist Arthur de Carle Sowerby (1885–1954), accentuates America's rugged masculinity by suggesting different national approaches to hunting and the growing professionalization of the naturalist.
1 See Greenberg., A. S. Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2005, pp. 21–22Google Scholar; Conroy-Krutz, E., Christian Imperialism: Converting the World in the Early American Republic, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2015, p. 104CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
2 Belich, J., Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Anglo-World, 1783–1939, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009, p. 156CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
3 Finger, J. R., Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 2001, p. 296Google Scholar.
4 Greenberg, Manifest Manhood, pp. 21–22.
5 Winter, T., Making Men, Making Class: The YMCA and Workingmen, 1877–1920, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2002Google Scholar.
6 Tyrrell, I., Crisis of the Wasteful Nation: Empire and Conservation in Theodore Roosevelt's America, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 2015, p. 5Google Scholar.
7 Bederman, G., Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1995, p. 15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
8 For the cult of wilderness, see Nash, R. F., Wilderness and the American Mind, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2014Google Scholar. For the fashioning of ‘American Natives’, see Herman, D. J., Hunting and the American Imagination, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 2001Google Scholar.
9 For a cultural reading of Caldwell's activities in China, see Yick, J. K. S., ‘Methodist Missionary Contributions to Intercultural Understanding and Diplomacy: The Caldwell Family in Foochow and Central Fukien, 1912–1949’, Methodist History vol. 33, 1995, pp. 238–248Google Scholar.
10 The AMNH was Caldwell's sole sponsor and buyer of his specimens.
11 John M. MacKenzie coined the term ‘collecting imperialism’ in MacKenzie, J. M., Museums and Empire: Natural History, Human Cultures, and Colonial Identities, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2009, p. 60Google Scholar.
12 Fan, F., British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2004, pp. 89–90Google Scholar.
13 Aron, S., The American West: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015, p. 35Google Scholar.
14 Robertson, W. and Doyle, W., American Hunter: How Legendary Hunters Shaped America, Howard Books, New York, 2015Google Scholar.
15 Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 143.
16 For the ‘birth’ of the American West, see Belich, Replenishing the Earth, pp. 223–260.
17 Ibid., p. 6.
18 Bryan, J. L. Jr., The American Elsewhere: Adventure and Manliness in the Age of Expansion, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 2017, p. 292CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
19 Turner, F. J., The Frontier in American History, H. Holt and Company, New York. 1920Google Scholar.
20 Foner, E., Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995Google Scholar.
21 Belich, Replenishing the Earth, p. 6.
22 Wrobel, D. M., The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1993, pp. 3–5Google Scholar.
23 Connell, R., ‘The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History’, Theory and Society vol. 22, no. 5, 1993, p. 612CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Anahita, S. and Mix, T. L., ‘Retrofitting Frontier Masculinity for Alaska's War against Wolves’, Gender and Society vol. 20, no. 3, 2006, pp. 333–334CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
24 Tyrrell, Crisis of the Wasteful Nation, pp. 200–201.
25 Bryan, The American Elsewhere, p. 292.
26 Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 141–160.
27 Kohler, R. E., All Creatures: Naturalists, Collectors, and Biodiversity, 1850–1950, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2006, p. 89Google Scholar.
28 Wonders, K., Habitat Diorama: Illusions of Wilderness in Museums of Natural History, Almqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm, 1993, p. 109Google Scholar.
29 Beckett, S., The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2001, p. 271CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
30 Cole, D., Captured Heritage: The Scramble for Northwest Coast Artefacts, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1985Google Scholar.
31 Regal, B., Henry Fairfield Osborn, Race, and the Search for the Origins of Man, Ashgate, Burlington, VT, 2002, p. 71Google Scholar.
32 Wonders, Habitat Diorama, p. 126.
33 Haraway, D., ‘Teddy Bear Patriarchy: Taxidermy in the Garden of Eden, New York City, 1908–1936’, Social Text no. 11 (1984–1985), p. 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 Wonders, Habitat Diorama, p. 126.
35 Sheets-Pyenson, S., Cathedrals of Science: The Development of Colonial Natural History Museums during the Late Nineteenth Century, McGill-Queen's University Press, Kingston, 1988, pp. 9–10Google Scholar.
36 Jacobs, K. and Wingfield, C., ‘Introduction’, in Trophies, Relics, and Curios: Missionary Heritage from Africa and the Pacific, Jacobs, K., Knowles, C. and Wingfield, C. (eds), Sidestone Press, Leiden, 2015, p. 11Google Scholar. The first American zoos housed their animals in small cages in which they had little room. Visitors were invited to identify the animals’ evolutionary similarities to other animals. In contrast, natural history museums restored animals to their wild settings through naturalistic taxidermy. See Bender, D. E., The Animal Game: Searching for Wilderness at the American Zoo, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2016, pp. 7–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
37 For the lives of Chinese objects in America, see Frank, C., Objectifying China, Imagining America: Chinese Commodities in Early America, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 2011Google Scholar; and Goldstein, J., ‘Cantonese Artifacts, Chinoiserie, and Early American Idealization of China’, in America Views China: American Images of China Then and Now, Goldstein, J., Israel, J. and Conroy, H. (eds), Lehigh University Press, Bethlehem, 1991, pp. 43–55Google Scholar.
38 Reynolds, V. and Heller, A., Tibetan Collection—Volume I: Introduction, Newark Museum, Newark, NJ, 1983, p. 56Google Scholar.
39 Wissing, D. A., Pioneer in Tibet, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2004Google Scholar.
40 Andrews, Roy Chapman, ‘Introduction’, in Caldwell, Harry R., Blue Tiger, Abingdon Press, New York, 1924, p. 11Google Scholar.
41 Regal, Henry Fairfield Osborn, pp. 136–146.
42 Miner, R. W., Exhibition Halls of the American Museum of Natural History, The Museum, New York, 1939, p. 105Google Scholar. In 1936, Ruth E. Harkness (1900–1947), an American socialite, trekked to Tibet and brought back the first live giant panda to the United States. See Croke, V., The Lady and the Panda: The True Adventures of the First American Explorer to Bring Back China's Most Exotic Animal, Random House, New York, 2005Google Scholar.
43 Jernigan, T. R., Shooting in China, Methodist Publishing House, Shanghai, 1908, p. 123Google Scholar.
44 Andrews, R. C., Camps and Trails in China: A Narrative of Exploration, Adventure, and Sport in Little-Known China, D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1918, p. 3Google Scholar.
45 Caldwell, J. C., China Coast Family, Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, 1953, p. 14Google Scholar.
46 H. R. Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, unpublished autobiography, Box 3, Folder 30–31, Special Collections, Yale Divinity Library, 1958, p. 2.
47 Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, p. 104.
48 Haselby, S., The Origins of American Religious Nationalism, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015, p. 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
49 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 4.
50 Caldwell, China Coast Family, pp. 14–15.
51 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, pp. 45–54.
52 Anahita and Mix, ‘Retrofitting Frontier Masculinity’, p. 334.
53 For the differences between ‘restrained’ manhood and ‘martial’ manhood, see Greenberg, Manifest Manhood.
54 MacInnis, D., China Chronicles from a Lost Time: The Min River Journals, EastBridge, Norwalk, 2009, p. 48Google Scholar.
55 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 55.
56 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 16.
57 Dunch, R., Fuzhou Protestants and the Making of a Modern China, 1857–1927, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2001, p. 150Google Scholar. On ‘China's challenge’, see Hutchinson, P. (ed.), China's Challenge and the Methodist Reply: Program of the Methodist Episcopal Church in China Adopted at the Program Study and Statement Conference, Peking, January 27–February 10, 1920, Methodist Publishing House, Shanghai, 1920Google Scholar.
58 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, pp. 64–65.
59 Ibid., p. 65.
60 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 16.
61 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 18.
62 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, pp. 16–17.
63 Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, p. 114.
64 For the history of the Methodist Church in Fujian, see Carlson, E. C., The Foochow Missionaries, 1847–1880, East Asian Research Center, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1974CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
65 For estimated figures of these attacks, see Z. Cao, ‘Fujian diqu ren hu guanxi yanbian ji shehui yingdui’ [Changes in human-tiger relations in Fujian and social responses], Nankai Xuebao vol. 4, 2013, pp. 98–109.
66 Liu, Z., ‘Ming Qing Min Yue Gan diqu huzai kaoshu’ [Tiger-related disasters in Fujian, Guangdong, and Jiangxi during the Ming and Qing Dynasties], Qingshi yanjiu vol. 2, 2001, pp. 120–122Google Scholar.
67 Coggins, C., The Tiger and the Pangolin: Nature, Culture, and Conservation in China, University of Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu, 2003, pp. 51–67Google Scholar.
68 Liu, Z., ‘Ming Qing nanfang yanhai diqu huhuan kaoshu’ [Tiger-related disasters in the southern coastal regions of Ming-Qing China], Zhongguo shehui jingjishi yanjiu vol. 2, 2001, pp. 85–91Google Scholar.
69 MacInnis, China Chronicles from a Lost Time, p. 9.
70 These figures are taken from Lian, X., The Conversion of Missionaries: Liberalism in American Protestant Missions in China, 1907–1932, Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA, 1997, pp. 4–6Google Scholar.
71 Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, pp. 11–12.
72 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 13.
73 Ibid., pp. 20–21.
74 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 38.
75 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 65.
76 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 86.
77 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 163.
78 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 19.
79 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 69.
80 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, pp. 23–24.
81 On the ways in which fear could build communities, see Boomgaard, P., Frontiers of Fear: Tigers and People in the Malay World, 1600–1950, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2001, pp. 227–228CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
82 Nappi, C., The Monkey and the Inkpot: Natural History and its Transformation in Early Modern China, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2009, p. 46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
83 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 33.
84 ‘The Ghost Cats of Cat Hill’, North China Herald, 8 July 1922, p. 121.
85 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 37.
86 ‘The Tiger in China: A China Press Radio Lecture by Arthur de C. Sowerby’, China Press, 8 February 1925, p. 22.
87 Harrell, S., ‘Explorers, Scientists, and Imperial Knowledge Production in Early Twentieth-Century China’, in Explorers and Scientists in China's Borderlands, 1880–1950, Glover, D. M. et al. (eds), University of Washington Press, Seattle, 2011, p. 18Google Scholar.
88 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 42.
89 Caldwell, China Coast Family, pp. 19–21.
90 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 86.
91 Ibid., pp. 60–61, 63.
92 MacInnis, China Chronicles from a Lost Time, p. 68.
93 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 184.
94 Ibid., p. 98.
95 Ibid., p. 212.
96 Lian, The Conversion of Missionaries, pp. 142–144.
97 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, pp. 98–99.
98 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, pp. 80–81.
99 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 52.
100 Ibid., pp. 61–62.
101 Herman, Hunting and the American Imagination, p. 153.
102 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, pp. 82–83.
103 Ibid., p. 83. The famous Chinese zoologist Tan Bingjie (1915–2003) agreed with the Chinese villagers that the Blue Tiger was essentially black. See B. Tan, Zhongguo de zhenqin yishou [The Rare Birds and Animals of China], Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, Beijing, 1985, p. 99.
104 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 24 January 1922. Special Collections, MSS C446, American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) Library.
105 ‘Wild Animals of China’, North China Herald, 15 July 1916, p. 101.
106 Andrews, Camps and Trails in China, p. 3.
107 Roy Chapman Andrews to Joseph Asaph Allen, 15 July 1916. Central Archives, 1062, AMNH Library.
108 Andrews, Camps and Trails in China, p. 44.
109 Roy Chapman Andrews to Sammie, 30 July 1916. Central Archives, 1062, AMNH Library.
110 Rexer, L. and Klein, R., American Museum of Natural History: 125 Years of Expedition and Discovery, Abrams, Harry N. in association with AMNH, New York, 1995, pp. 54–56Google Scholar.
111 Andrews, Camps and Trails in China, pp. 56–57.
112 Henry Fairfield Osborn to Roy Chapman Andrews, 28 September 1916. Central Archives, 1062, AMNH Library.
113 Harry R. Caldwell to Henry Fairfield Osborn, 7 November 1916. Central Archives, 1062, AMNH Library.
114 For the background on the decline of the Student Volunteer Movement and its implications for missionary work in China, see the collected essays in Neils, P. (ed.), United States Attitudes and Policies toward China: The Impact of American Missionaries, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY, 1990Google Scholar; and Fairbank, J. K. (ed.), The Missionary Enterprise in China and America, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1974CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
115 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, pp. 77–78.
116 Ibid., p. 82.
117 Other animals caught by Caldwell included badgers, bats, deer, flying squirrels, martens, pigs, rabbits, salamanders, and weasels. See T. M. Wilkinson and Co. to Harry R. Caldwell, 6 April 1918. Central Archives, 551, AMNH Library; Assistant Secretary to Harry R. Caldwell, 27 August 1918. Central Archives, 551, AMNH Library; and Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 11 September 1922. Central Archives, 1077, AMNH Library.
118 Annual Report for the Year 1917, American Museum of Natural History, New York, 1918, p. 29.
119 Caldwell, China Coast Family, pp. 66–67.
120 Acting Director to the American Consul, American Legation, Shanghai, China, 12 June 1919. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
121 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 10 November 1920. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
122 Annual Report for the Year 1917, p. 29.
123 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 3 February 1921. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
124 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 15 June 1919. Central Archives, 551, AMNH Library.
125 For Caldwell's participation, see Assistant Secretary to Harry R. Caldwell, 18 June 1919. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library; Assistant Secretary to Harry R. Caldwell, 24 June 1919. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
126 ‘China's “Invisible Blue Tiger”: Beautiful Markings, Hunter's Lost Opportunity’, Shanghai Times, 29 April 1919, p. 5.
127 Roy Chapman Andrews to Henry Fairfield Osborn, 27 November 1919. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
128 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 66.
129 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 8 April 1920. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library; Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 29 December 1919. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
130 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 94.
131 Ibid., p. 101.
132 Greenberg, Manifest Manhood, p. 17.
133 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 88.
134 Ibid., pp. 88–94.
135 ‘Three Years’ Trip to Unknown China: Hunter's Search for Blue Tigers and Other Rarities’, North China Herald, 25 June 1921, p. 918.
136 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 10 January 1922. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
137 ‘An Expedition on the Min River: Mr. F. Tangier Smith off with Another Party: To Hunt for the Blue Tiger’, North China Herald, 26 December 1925, p. 558.
138 ‘Mr. Ajax Smith Back from Fujian: A Journey into Hitherto Unexplored Country: Moving Pictures of the Wild and New Animals: But the Tame Civet Left Behind: Bandits Who Missed Booty of $200,000’, North China Herald, 10 July 1926, p. 70.
139 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 1 December 1922. Central Archives, 1077, AMNH Library.
140 ‘The Ghost Cats of Cat Hill’, p. 121.
141 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 17 March 1922. Special Collections, MSS C446, AMNH Library.
142 ‘The Tiger in China’, p. 22.
143 Ibid., p. 93.
144 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 144.
145 Ibid., p. 149.
146 ‘Blue Tiger and Cat Bear: Mr. Sowerby and the Inspired Interviewer: His Real Mission to China’, North China Herald, 9 July 1921, p. 108.
147 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 26 July 1922. Special Collections, MSS C446, AMNH Library.
148 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 11 September 1922. Central Archives, 1077, AMNH Library.
149 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 28 December 1922. Central Archives, 1077, AMNH Library.
150 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 10 January 1922. Central Archives, 1076, AMNH Library.
151 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 24 February 1922. Special Collections, MSS C446, AMNH Library.
152 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 17 March 1922. Special Collections, MSS C446, AMNH Library.
153 Caldwell, Blue Tiger, p. 80.
154 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 94.
155 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 27 September 1923. Central Archives, 1077.1, AMNH Library.
156 For the professionalization of British scientists in the nineteenth century, see, for example, Endersby, J., Imperial Nature: Joseph Hooker and the Practices of Victorian Science, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2008Google Scholar.
157 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 28 December 1922. Central Archives, 1077, AMNH Library. For the racial aspect of British hunting, see MacKenzie, J. M., The Empire of Nature: Hunting, Conservation, and British Imperialism, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1988Google Scholar.
158 Mandala, V. R., ‘The Raj and the Paradoxes of Wildlife Conservation: British Attitudes and Expediencies’, The Historical Journal vol. 58, no. 1, 2015, p. 85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
159 For the idea of aristocratic masculinity, see Rico, M., Nature's Noblemen: Transatlantic Masculinities and the Nineteenth-Century American West, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2013CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
160 MacKenzie, The Empire of Nature, p. 169.
161 Harry R. Caldwell to George H. Sherwood, 26 June 1924. Central Archives, 551, AMNH Library.
162 For British interpretations of hunting and their implications for class, empire, and nation, see MacKenzie, The Empire of Nature; Brittlebank, K., ‘Sakti and Barakat: The Power of Tipu's Tiger. An Examination of the Tiger Emblem of Tipu Sultan of Mysore’, Modern Asian Studies vol. 29, no. 2, 1995, pp. 257–269CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sramek, J., ‘Face Him like a Briton: Tiger Hunting, Imperialism, and British Masculinity in Colonial India, 1800–1875’, Victorian Studies vol. 48, no. 4, 2006, pp. 659–680CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hughes, J. E., Animal Kingdoms: Hunting, the Environment, and Power in the Indian Princely States, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2013CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the formation of and a discourse on the ‘gentlemanly scientist’ in Victorian Britain, see Ellis, H., Masculinity and Science in Britain, 1831–1918, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2017CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
163 Harry R. Caldwell to Roy Chapman Andrews, 21 August 1928. Special Collections, MSS C446, AMNH Library.
164 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 102.
165 Ibid., p. 159.
166 Bays, D. H., A New History of Christianity in China, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, 2012, p. 108Google Scholar.
167 Regal, Henry Fairfield Osborn, pp. 176–178.
168 The AMNH holds his unpublished Chinese Butterflies in its rare book collection—the cost of colour reproduction was so great that the book was never published. See Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 66.
169 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, pp. 201–203.
170 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 93.
171 Ibid., pp. 72–73.
172 Caldwell, ‘The Troubleshooter’, p. 225.
173 Harry R. Caldwell to Frederic Augustus Lucas, 13 March 1923. Central Archives, 1077, AMNH Library.
174 Acting Director to Wellington Koo, 12 June 1919. Central Archives, 1062, AMNH Library.
175 Fan, British Naturalists in Qing China, pp. 88–89.
176 Caldwell, China Coast Family, p. 50.
177 Bryan, The American Elsewhere, pp. 5–6.