¹ ‘Banaras Hindu University, Amendment Act (1951)’, National Archives of India (NAI), Ministry of Education (ME), 27-1/51-G3.

² Jamia Millia Islamia provided education from nursery all the way through to university. For a long time, it was known primarily as a school, rather than a university.

³ Brass, Paul, The production of Hindu-Muslim violence in contemporary India (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003), p. 126Google Scholar.

⁴ Amber Abbas, ‘Narratives of belonging: Aligarh Muslim University and the partitioning of South Asia’, PhD thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 2012, pp. 157–181.

⁵ Brass, The production of Hindu-Muslim violence, pp. 34–37.

⁶ For more details, see p. 5 of this article.

⁷ Hasan, Mushirul, Legacy of a divided nation. Indian Muslims since independence (London: Hurst, 1997)Google Scholar.

⁸ Mujeeb, Mohammad, Dr. Zakir Husain. A biography (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1972), pp. 59–61Google Scholar. Emphasis mine.

⁹ Among the many authors who have written on this issue, see, for instance, Pandey, Gyanendra, ‘Can a Muslim be an Indian?’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 41, 4 (Oct. 1999), pp. 608–629CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Chatterjee, Partha, ‘Secularism and tolerance’, in Bhargava, Rajeev (ed.), Secularism and its critics (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 345–379Google Scholar; and, for outside India, Asad, Talal, Formations of the secular (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Qaiser, Rizwan, Resisting colonialism and communal politics. Maulana Azad and the making of the Indian nation (New Delhi: Manohar, 2011), p. 281Google Scholar.

¹¹ Dasgupta, Uma, ‘Santiniketan. The school of a poet’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed.), Knowledge, power and politics. Educational institutions in India (New Delhi: Lotus Collection, 1998), p. 272Google Scholar.

¹² Renold, Leah, A Hindu education. Early years of the Banaras Hindu University (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 80–81Google Scholar.

¹³ Ibid., p. 81.

¹⁴ Basu, Aparna, ‘National education in Bengal: 1905–1912’, in Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi (ed.), The contested terrain. Perspectives on education in India (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1998), pp. 54–67Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Renold, A Hindu education, pp. 81–113.

¹⁶ For a more detailed account of Jamia's foundation, see Hasan, Mushirul and Jalil, Rakshanda, Partners in freedom. Jamia Millia Islamia (New Delhi: Lotus Collection, 2006), pp. 60–74Google Scholar, and Hashmi, Masroor Ali Akhtar, Muslim response to Western education (a study of four pioneer institutions) (New Delhi: Commonwealth Publishers, 1989), pp. 148–186Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Lelyveld, David and Minault, Gail, ‘The campaign for a Muslim university, 1898–1920’, Modern Asian Studies, 8, 2 (1974), p. 187Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Ibid., pp. 172–173.

¹⁹ Jamia Millia Islamia (Delhi: c. 1940s), p. 12. Emphasis mine.

²⁰ Ibid.

²¹ In 1946, the magazine Harijan thus reported an unplanned visit of Gandhi to Jamia. On this occasion, Gandhi told students: ‘I have proved my claim to being a member of the family by coming without previous notice.’ Harijan, 28 April 1946, cited in Gandhi, M. K., To the students (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Trust, 1949), p. 284Google Scholar.

²² Haider, Ghulam, Naqoosh-e-Jamia [Paintings of Jamia] (New Delhi: Maktaba Jamia, 2012), p. 373Google Scholar.

²³ ‘Jamia's tryst with Hindi’, Jauhar, 1, 2 (Dec. 2010–Feb. 2011), p. 21Google Scholar.

²⁴ Among them was the future founder of the Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi, Shafiqur Rahman Kidwai.

²⁵ See photo no. 16, showing Jamia students reading in a classroom, with the portraits of Mohammad Ali, Tagore, and Gandhi hanging on the wall, in Album K ‘Jamia activities’, Photo collection, Premchand Archives, Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI).

²⁶ Sadiqur Rahman Kidwai, in Haider, Naqoosh, p. 9.

²⁷ Haider, Naqoosh, pp. 61–64. Mehdi, Sughra, Hamari Jamia. Taleemi, tahzeebi aur samaji saga [Our Jamia. Educational and social saga] (New Delhi: Maktaba-e-Jamia, 2013), p. 252Google Scholar.

²⁸ Mehdi, Hamari Jamia.

²⁹ Ibid., p. 260.

³⁰ Interview of Mohammad Mujeeb, Oral History transcript, 20 August 1970, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML), pp. 1–5.

³¹ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, pp. 6–8, 30–41.

³² Hasan and Jalil, Partners in freedom, pp. 73–74.

³³ ‘Staff Members of the IAE (Fine Arts Section)’ in ‘Recognition of the Sr Diploma of Arts[,] Sr Diploma of Crafts of the Institute of Arts Education, Jamia Millia, New Delhi’, NAI, ME, 18-49/56-D.1.

³⁴ ‘Details of salaries and allowances for the year 1945–46’, in The Muslim University, Aligarh. Financial statement for the year 1946, as passed by the Executive Council held on 1st April 1945 (Aligarh, 1946)Google Scholar.

³⁵ On the rise of left-wing influences among North Indian Muslims in the 1920s, see Ansari, Khizar Humayun, The emergence of socialist thought among North India Muslims (1917–1947) (Lahore: Book Traders, 1990)Google Scholar, and Hasan, Mushirul, ‘Nationalist and separatist trends in Aligarh, 1915–1947’, in Gupta, A. K. (ed.), Myth and reality: the struggle for freedom in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1987), pp. 116–151Google Scholar.

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³⁸ On Gandhi's concept of ‘trusteeship’ and his reinterpretation of relations between different varnas, see Sarkar, Tanika, ‘Gandhi and social relations’, in Brown, Judith and Parel, Anthony (eds), The Cambridge companion to Gandhi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 173–198CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 30.

⁴⁰ Ibid.

⁴¹ Interview of Mujeeb, Oral History transcript, p. 13.

⁴² Personal interview, Sadiqur Rahman Kidwai, 12 March 2015.

⁴³ Barbara Metcalf uses the expression ‘turning within’ to characterize the strategy adopted by Deoband's ulama after the establishment of colonial rule. Metcalf, B., Islamic revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁴ Although many individuals at Aligarh—both students and teachers—embraced left-wing and nationalist ideas, as an institution, the University remained closely associated with ‘feudal’ landowning elites and shunned direct confrontation with the British.

⁴⁵ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 78.

⁴⁶ ‘Grants made by Hyderabad Government, to the Jamia Millia Islamic (sic), Delhi’, NAI, Ministry of States (MS), Hyderabad, 4(14)-H, 1951; ‘Intention of Dr Zakir Husain of Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi to collect funds from certain Indian Muslim states for his educational work’, NAI, Political Department (PD), Political, 368-P(5), 1945.

⁴⁷ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 43.

⁴⁸ Ibid., pp. 58–61.

⁴⁹ According to Hasan and Jalil, Mohammad Ali's ‘real’ objective was to take control of AMU rather than to develop Jamia. His colleagues later turned towards Zakir Husain as they considered that Ali was not doing enough to revive the institution. See Hasan and Jalil, Partners in freedom, pp. 71, 74.

⁵⁰ On the influence of German educationists on Zakir Husain, see Holzwarth, Simone, ‘A new education for “Young India”. Exploring Nai Talim from the perspective of a connected history’, in Bagchi, Barnita, Fuchs, Eckhardt and Rousmaniere, Kate (eds), Connecting histories of education. Transnational and cross-cultural exchanges in (post)colonial education (London: Berghahn, 2014), p. 131Google Scholar, and Oesterheld, Joachim, ‘Zakir Husain. Begegnungen und Erfahrungen bei der Suche nach moderner Bildung für ein freies Indien [Zakir Husain. Encounters and experiences in the quest for modern education for a free India]’, in Heidrich, P. and Liebau, H. (eds), Akteure des Wandels. Lebensläufe und Gruppenbilder an Schnittstellen von Kulturen [Protagonists of change. Biographies and group portraits at the intersection of cultures] (Berlin: Das Arabische Buch, 2001), pp. 105–130Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Saiyidain, K. G., The humanist tradition in Indian educational thought (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1966), pp. 179–180Google Scholar.

⁵² Holzwarth, ‘A new education for “Young India”’, p. 130.

⁵³ Husain, Zakir, Educational reconstruction in India, Patel, S. V. lectures (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1959), p. 13Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Ibid., p. 65.

⁵⁵ Ibid., p. 16.

⁵⁶ Röhrs, Hermann, ‘Georg Kerschensteiner (1852–1932)’, Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education, 23, 3/4 (1993), pp. 807–822CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁸ Primary school. Jamia Millia Islamia (New Delhi, n.d.), p. 12.

⁵⁹ ‘The craft of learning’, Jauhar, 1, 4 (June–August 2011), pp. 20–21.

⁶⁰ Kumar, Krishna, ‘Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869–1948)’, Prospects, 23, 3/4 (1993), pp. 507–517CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶² Rao, Parimala (ed.), New perspectives in the history of Indian education (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2014), p. 29Google Scholar.

⁶³ ‘Welcome address by Dr. Salamatullah’, in Art and craft education. Report of the seminar on ‘Art and craft in teacher education’ (New Delhi: Teachers' College, 1966)Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Ibid., p. 5.

⁶⁵ Salana report [Annual report]. Jamia Millia Islamia Delhi, 1951–52, pp. 11–12.

⁶⁶ According to Jamia's constitution, Urdu was to be the ‘normal medium of instruction in all stages of education’ while other languages could also be used in ‘special cases’: The constitution of the Jamia Millia Islamia (Delhi, 1950)Google Scholar. Yet, in practice, teachers privileged a simple and mixed language, written in both the Devnagari and the Urdu scripts, which could be understood both by Hindi and Urdu speakers. In that sense, it would be more correct to say that they used Hindustani.

⁶⁷ See, for instance, the adoption of Hindi at the Kashi Vidyapith (Banaras): Renold, A Hindu education, p. 96. According to Basu, the National Council of Education in Bengal also recommended the adoption of the language as a vernacular medium of instruction: Basu, ‘National education in Bengal’, p. 60.

⁶⁸ On the polarization of Hindi and Urdu along communal lines before and after independence, see, for instance, Brass, Paul, Language, religion and politics in North India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Dasgupta, J. D., Language conflict and national development. Group politics and national language policy in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Farouqui, Ather (ed.), Redefining Urdu politics in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; King, Christopher, One language, two scripts. The Hindi movement in nineteenth century North India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Rai, Alok, Hindi nationalism (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2001)Google Scholar; Rai, Amrit, A house divided. The origin and development of Hindi/Hindavi (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984)Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ King, Robert D., Nehru and the language politics of India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998)Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ David Lelyveld, ‘Sir Sayyid, Maulana Azad and the Uses of Urdu’, Paper prepared for a conference on ‘Cultural institutions, knowledge arenas, post-1947: revisiting the roles of Maulana Azad’, NMML, New Delhi, 21–22 March 2013.

⁷¹ The Jamia higher secondary school (New Delhi, n.d.), p. 2. Emphasis mine.

⁷² Datla, Kavita, ‘A worldly vernacular: Urdu at Osmania University’, Modern Asian Studies, 43, 5 (Sep. 2009), pp. 1117–1148CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Datla, K., The language of secular India. Urdu nationalism and colonial India (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2013)Google Scholar.

⁷³ According to Mujeeb, ‘Jamia conducted experiments in the educational field and used these experiments to shape knowledge. Along with these experiments, people came to use the [innovations in the] language that had been devised for them.’ Quoted in Mehdi, Hamari Jamia, p. 307.

⁷⁴ Ibid., p. 306.

⁷⁵ Sherman, Taylor, Muslim belonging in secular India. Negotiating citizenship in postcolonial Hyderabad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 164CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁶ Nehru to Diwakar, R. R., 13 April 1950, Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru (hereafter SWJN), Vol. 14, Part II, Gopal, S. (ed.) (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 33–34Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Interestingly, the word ‘exactness’ is in English in the text, as if to emphasize the greater technical competency of English which Urdu perhaps needed to aspire to. Mehdi, Hamari Jamia, p. 307.

⁷⁸ Cited in Jalil, Rakshanda, Liking progress, loving change. A literary history of the Progressive Writers’ Movement in Urdu (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014), pp. 29–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸¹ Ibid. Emphasis mine.

⁸² Ibid., p. 304.

⁸³ Ibid., p. 306.

⁸⁴ Haider, Naqoosh, p. 364.

⁸⁵ Haider, Syed Jalaluddin, ‘Children's literature in Urdu’, New Review of Children's Literature and Librarianship, 4, 1 (1998), p. 109CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁶ Ibid., p. 306.

⁸⁷ Tanvir, Habib, Agra Bazaar, Malick, Javed (trans) (Calcutta: Seagull books, 2006), p. 9Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Ibid., pp. 3–5, 21–24.

⁸⁹ Ibid., pp. 11–12.

⁹⁰ Katyal, Anjum, Habib Tanvir. Towards an inclusive theatre (New Delhi: Sage, 2012)Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Ali, B. Sheikh, Zakir Husain. Life and times (New Delhi: Vikas, 1991), p. 93Google Scholar. See also Gene Dannen, ‘A physicist's lost love: Leo Szilard and Gerda Philipsborn’, 26 January 2015, http://www.dannen.com/lostlove, [accessed 30 May 2019].

⁹² Interview of K. G. Saiyidain, Oral History transcript, 8 January 1967, NMML, p. 45.

⁹³ See ‘Wardha scheme of education, 1937’, in Jayapalan, N., Problems of Indian education (New Delhi: Atlantic, 2001), p. 17Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Ibid.

⁹⁵ Avinashilingam, T. S., Gandhiji's experiments in education (Delhi: Publications Division, 1960), p. 60Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 110.

⁹⁷ Rajendra Prasad, the future president of India, who participated in the promotion of basic education in Bihar, considered that Zakir Husain, Shah, K. T., and Saiyidain, K. G. were the ‘main protagonists’ of the Wardha scheme. Prasad, R., Autobiography (New Delhi: Penguin, 2010), p. 487Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 114.

⁹⁹ Varkey, C. J., The Wardha scheme of education. An exposition and examination (Mysore: Oxford University Press, 1940), pp. 137–138Google Scholar; Prasad, Autobiography, p. 487.

¹⁰⁰ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 78.

¹⁰¹ Varkey, The Wardha scheme, pp. 137–148.

¹⁰² See the meetings on 23–24 April 1938 and 12 April 1939, Minutes of the Publication Committee of the Hindustani Talimi Sangh (1938–1940), Papers of the Hindustani Talimi Sangh (Wardha), NMML.

¹⁰³ See the meeting on 12 April 1939, ibid.

¹⁰⁴ See the meeting on 23–24 April 1938, ibid.

¹⁰⁵ Zakir Husain left HTS in 1948, expressing deep disappointment with the way in which basic education had developed in India. He considered that, in most cases, it had been reduced to mechanical work. Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, pp. 123–125.

¹⁰⁶ Art and craft education.

¹⁰⁷ In 1937, Congress ministries recognized adult education as the responsibility of the government. Shortly after, the Central Advisory Board of Education appointed an Adult Education Committee to promote adult education. Bordia, Anil, Kidd, J. R. and Draper, J. A. (eds), Adult education in India: a book of readings (Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1973), p. 14Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Haider, Naqoosh, p. 137.

¹⁰⁹ Annual report of the ITT (1953–54), in ‘Idara Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia—Grant aid in 1954–55’, NAI, ME, 18-2/55-B2.

¹¹⁰ Shafiqur Rahman Kidwai to Maulana Azad, 10 May 1949, in ‘Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’, NAI, ME, 43-75/50-B.1.

¹¹¹ Ibid.

¹¹² Nehru to Diwakar, 13 April 1950, SWJN, Vol. 14, Part II, pp. 33–34; Nehru to Principal Secretary Kesho Ram, 5 August 1958, SWJN, Vol. 43, S. Gopal (ed.) (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 319–320.

¹¹³ Annual report of the ITT (1953–54), in ‘Idara Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia—Grant aid in 1954–55’.

¹¹⁴ Annual report of the ITT (1954–55), ibid.

¹¹⁵ Shafiqur Rahman Kidwai to Maulana Azad, 10 May 1949, in ‘Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’.

¹¹⁶ Datla, ‘A worldly vernacular’, and Datla, The language of secular India.

¹¹⁷ In his famous article, ‘Can a Muslim be Indian?’, Pandey analyses the expression ‘nationalist Muslims’ to show that Indian Muslims, no matter what their political orientation may be, continued to be seen primarily as ‘Muslims’. As such, they were considered as ‘hyphenated Indians’, whose loyalty to the nation remained forever suspect. I use the expression ‘unhyphenated Indians’ to show that many Indian Muslims refused to be considered as less Indian than non-Muslim Indians as a consequence of their religious identity. See Pandey, ‘Can a Muslim be an Indian?’.

¹¹⁸ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 32.

¹¹⁹ Hasan and Jalil, Partners in freedom, p. 60.

¹²⁰ Ali, Zakir Husain. Life and times, p. 120.

¹²¹ According to Metcalf, religious identity was ‘overwhelmingly important’ at Aligarh, but religious life was, by and large, ‘attenuated and flat’, especially after Sir Syed's attempts to renew religious thought were rejected and religious instruction fell into the hands of the defenders of a more traditional conception of Islam. Metcalf, Islamic revival, pp. 325–330.

¹²² Lelyveld, David, Aligarh's first generation: Muslim solidarity in British India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 327–348Google Scholar.

¹²³ Ibid., p. 72.

¹²⁴ Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 9.

¹²⁵ Jamia teachers also made arrangements to teach Hindu philosophy to their Hindu students. Hasan and Jalil, Partners in freedom, p. 73.

¹²⁶ Lelyveld and Minault, ‘The campaign for a Muslim University’, p. 188.

¹²⁷ Quoted in Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 9.

¹²⁸ The Jamia higher secondary school, p. 7.

¹²⁹ Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 16.

¹³⁰ Metcalf, Islamic revival. This focus on textual sources and ‘correct’ practice was not unique to Muslim reformists. Parna Sengupta has shown how Western missionaries’ emphasis on reading shaped the conception of modern religious instruction in India across religious groups. Sengupta, P., Pedagogy for religion. Missionary education and the fashioning of Hindus and Muslims in Bengal (New Delhi: Orient BlackSwan, 2012)Google Scholar.

¹³¹ The author uses this expression to refer to the Companions of the Prophet, in a book entitled Sitare (‘stars’), presented in Payam-e-Taleem, November 1944, p. 2.

¹³² Payam-e-Taleem, December 1928, p. 6.

¹³³ Ibid.

¹³⁴ Ibid., p. 16.

¹³⁵ Vice-chancellor's annual report, Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 8.

¹³⁶ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 72.

¹³⁷ Vice-chancellor's annual report, Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 8.

¹³⁸ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 89.

¹³⁹ Ibid.

¹⁴⁰ Tanvir, Agra Bazaar, p. 9.

¹⁴¹ Ghulam Haider, who studied at Jamia in the 1950s, remembers, for instance, a ‘ferocious maulana’, a teacher of Islamic studies, who, according to him, had a strict interpretation of sharia principles. Haider, Naqoosh, p. 386.

¹⁴² Tanvir, Agra Bazaar, p. 9.

¹⁴³ Vice-chancellor's annual report, Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 8.

¹⁴⁴ Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 12.

¹⁴⁵ Jamia Millia Islamia (Delhi: Alliance Press, c. 1940s), p. 6.

¹⁴⁶ Husain, Abid, The destiny of Indian Muslims (London: Asia Publishing House, 1965), p. 6Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁷ The constitution of the Jamia Millia Islamia, pp. 2–3.

¹⁴⁸ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, p. 94.

¹⁴⁹ Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi (Delhi: Jayyed Press, n.d.), p. 8.

¹⁵⁰ The Jamia higher secondary school, p. 7.

¹⁵¹ Primary school, pp. 22, 30.

¹⁵² Musulmanon ke liye iskouting ki pahli shandar rally. Jamia Iskout Association [The first grand scouting rally for Muslims] (Delhi, n.d.), p. 1.

¹⁵³ Speech at the All India Muslim Educational Conference, Aligarh, March 1937, quoted in Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, pp. 84–85.

¹⁵⁴ For an analysis of Gandhi's emphasis on sacrifice, particularly in his interpretation of the Gita, see Tridip Suhrud, ‘Gandhi's key writings: in search of unity’, in Brown and Parel (eds), The Cambridge companion to Gandhi, pp. 75–76.

¹⁵⁵ Ali, Zakir Husain. Life and times, pp. 43–45.

¹⁵⁶ Ibid., p. 80.

¹⁵⁷ Mujeeb, Dr. Zakir Husain, pp. 84–85.

¹⁵⁸ Pandey, Gyanendra, The construction of communalism in colonial North India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁹ Ibid. Emphasis mine.

¹⁶⁰ Basu, ‘National education in Bengal’, p. 61.

¹⁶¹ On Hindu nationalism in the late colonial period, see, for instance, Basu, Tapan et al. , Khaki shorts and saffron flags (London: Orient Longman, 1993)Google Scholar; Pandey, The construction of communalism; Jaffrelot, Christophe, The Hindu nationalist movement (London: Hurst, 1996)Google Scholar; Zavos, John, The emergence of Hindu nationalism in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Sarkar, Tanika, Hindu wife, Hindu nation (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001)Google Scholar; Gould, William, Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bapu, Prabhu, Hindu Mahasabha in colonial north India, 1915–1930: constructing nation and history (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013)Google Scholar.

¹⁶² Zamindar, Vazira, The long partition and the making of South Asia. Refugees, boundaries, histories (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), p. 21Google Scholar.

¹⁶³ Kidwai, Anis, In freedom's shade, Ayesha Kidwai (trans) (New Delhi: Penguin, 2011), pp. 66–67Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁴ Haider, Naqoosh, pp. 88, 90.

¹⁶⁵ Ali Ahmad Khan, one of Jamia's ‘life-members’, left after partition, but it seems that he was the only one to make this decision. The constitution of the Jamia Millia Islamia, Appendix I: List of members of the Jamia Millia Islamia Society.

¹⁶⁶ Kidwai, In freedom's shade, pp. 42–43, 48.

¹⁶⁷ Over 50,000 of Delhi's Muslims took refuge at the Purana Qila within days. Zamindar, The long partition, p. 34.

¹⁶⁸ Ibid., pp. 34–39.

¹⁶⁹ Kidwai, In freedom's shade, p. 68.

¹⁷⁰ Santosh Chatterjee, ‘We will win peace for Delhi’, Student, 15 Nov. 1947, p. 3.

¹⁷¹ Nehru to Patel, 9 October 1947, SWJN, Vol. 4, Gopal, S. (ed.) (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 134–135Google Scholar.

¹⁷² Ibid. See also ‘Record of the twelfth meeting of the Cabinet Emergency Committee’, 16 Sep. 1947, ibid., p. 79.

¹⁷³ Zamindar, The long partition, p. 29.

¹⁷⁴ This is the expression that Anis Kidwai uses to refer to Jamia members in her autobiographical book: Kidwai, In freedom's shade.

¹⁷⁵ Anjali Bhardwaj-Datta, ‘Rebuilding lives, redefining spaces: women in post-colonial Delhi, 1945–1980’, PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2014, pp. 86–88.

¹⁷⁶ Kidwai, In freedom's shade, pp. 206–208.

¹⁷⁷ Ibid., pp. 106–107.

¹⁷⁸ Quoted in Haider, Naqoosh, p. 453.

¹⁷⁹ Zakir Husain, ‘Qarar ya farar’ [‘To stay or to go’], speech given on the occasion of Gandhi's birthday, 2 Oct. 1947, in front of Jamia students, in Hameed, Syeda Saiyidain (ed.), Zakir Husain. Teacher who became president. Centenary volume (New Delhi: Indian Council for Cultural Relations, 2000), pp. 56–57Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁰ Quoted in Haider, Naqoosh, p. 458.

¹⁸¹ Ibid., p. 459.

¹⁸² According to Hasan and Jalil, arrangements for the teaching of Hindu theology already existed before independence, but it is in the 1950s that official documents mention a course in Hindu ethics. See, for instance, ‘Rajya Sabha-Starred question no. D.989 by Smt Savitri Nigam regarding Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi’, NAI, ME, 13-20/55-A1(U2).

¹⁸³ Article 28(1) of the Indian Constitution.

¹⁸⁴ On similar attempts by Bengali Muslim reformers to develop a single system of schooling that addressed the differing needs of religious communities, see Sengupta, Pedagogy for religion, pp. 151–153.

¹⁸⁵ Haider, Naqoosh, pp. 153–156.

¹⁸⁶ Photo no. 49, ‘Dilli kya hai?’ [‘What is Delhi?’], in Album K, Photo collection, Premchand Archives, JMI.

¹⁸⁷ See photo nos. 44, 50, 62, showing the ‘line of time’ designed as part of Jamia's ‘Hindustan ka project’ [‘India's project’], ibid.

¹⁸⁸ Sherman, Muslim belonging, pp. 14–15.

¹⁸⁹ Qaiser, Resisting colonialism, pp. 315–324. On the establishment of the National Museum and the memorialization of Indian ‘national’ art, see Guha-Thakurta, Tapati, Monuments, objects, histories. Institutions of art in colonial and post-colonial India (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), Chapter 6, pp. 175–204CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹⁰ One may think of P. D. Tandon, for instance, one of the leading figures of the Congress right-wing in the United Provinces, who was elected president of the Congress in 1950. For a note on Tandon's politics before 1947, see Gould, Hindu nationalism, pp. 190–192.

¹⁹¹ The report of the University Education Commission (December 1948–August 1949) (Simla: Government of India Press, 1950), p. 55Google Scholar.

¹⁹² In 1961, the government appointed an Emotional Integration Committee to ‘study the role of education in considering and promoting the processes of emotional integration in national life’: Bhatt, B. D. and Aggarwal, J. C., Educational documents in India (1831–1968) (New Delhi: Arya Book Depot, 1969), p. 212Google Scholar.

¹⁹³ ‘List of the 300 new booklets of the series of Post-literacy Adult Education to be compiled by the Idara Talim-e Taraqqi’, in ‘Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’.

¹⁹⁴ In 1947, he made a personal donation of Rs 10,000 to help the Idara resume its activities. Shafiqur Rahman Kidwai to Maulana Azad, 10 May 1949, in ‘Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’.

¹⁹⁵ See his letter to R. R. Diwakar, 13 April 1950, in SWJN, Vol. 14, Part II, pp. 33–34, and his note to Principal Secretary Kesho Ram, 5 August 1958, SWJN, Vol. 43, pp. 319–320.

¹⁹⁶ ‘An interim report on the distribution and utility of the social education pamphlets in Hindi published by the ITT, Jamia, Delhi’, in ‘Idara-e- Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’.

¹⁹⁷ ‘List of pamphlets (published by the Idara Talim-o-Taraqqi)’, ibid.

¹⁹⁸ Nehru used this expression in his convocation address at AMU on 24 January 1948, SWJN, Vol. 5, Gopal, S. (ed.) (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 24–27Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁹ On Habib's work, see also Irfan Habib, ‘Mohammad Habib’, Aligarh Movement, http://aligarhmovement.com/karwaan_e_aligarh/Prof_Mohammad_Habib, [accessed 30 May 2019], and Sanjay Subodh, ‘Rulers and medieval society. A study of writings of Mohammad Habib’, Journal of History and Social Sciences, 3, 2 (July–Dec. 2012), http://jhss.org/articleview.php?artid=143, [accessed 30 May 2019].

²⁰⁰ See Habib, Irfan, ‘Introduction’, in Habib, Mohammad, Studies in medieval Indian polity and culture, Habib, Irfan (ed.) (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 9Google Scholar.

²⁰¹ Presidential address, Indian History Congress, 6 December 1947, ibid., p. 19.

²⁰² ‘Aligarh Muslim University—Institute of Islamic Studies—Establishment of’, NAI, ME, 18-6/53-G.3.

²⁰³ Mujeeb, Mohammad, Indian Muslims (London: Allen and Unwin, 1967)Google Scholar.

²⁰⁴ Azad, Abul Kalam, India wins freedom (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1959)Google Scholar.

²⁰⁵ Prakash, Gyan, Another reason. Science and the imagination of modern India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 208–226CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰⁶ Shani, Ornit, ‘Gandhi, citizenship and the resilience of Indian nationhood’, Citizenship Studies, 15, 6–7 (Oct. 2011), pp. 659–678CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰⁷ Abduhu, G. Rasool, The educational ideas of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1973), p. 94Google Scholar.

²⁰⁸ See also ‘Prof Humayun Kabir, Joint Educational Adviser in the Ministry of Education—Broadcast talk on “Our Educational Programme”’, Education department, NAI, F 4-6 /48-G.

²⁰⁹ Abduhu, The educational ideas, pp. 103–104.

²¹⁰ Azad, A. K., ‘Education and national reconstruction’, press conference, 18 February 1947, in Speeches of Maulana Azad, 1947–1955 (Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1956), p. 7Google Scholar.

²¹¹ Shafiqur Rahman Kidwai to Maulana Azad, 10 May 1949, in ‘Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’.

²¹² See the chapter on ‘Rural universities’ in The Report of the University Education Commission, pp. 554–590.

²¹³ Ibid., pp. 545–547.

²¹⁴ Salana report [Annual report]. Jamia Millia Islamia Delhi, 1951–52, p. 17.

²¹⁵ Annual report of the ITT (1953–54), in ‘Idara Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia—Grant aid in 1954–55’.

²¹⁶ Shani, ‘Gandhi, citizenship’, p. 668.

²¹⁷ Sohan Singh, Assistant Educational Adviser, ME, 3 January 1956, in ‘Social education and rural development’—proposal by Idara-Talim-e-Taraqqi', NAI, ME, 18-27/55-B.2.

²¹⁸ Shafiqur Rahman Kidwai to Maulana Azad, 10 May 1949, in ‘Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’.

²¹⁹ Ibid.

²²⁰ See, for instance, ‘Visit to Jamia Millia with reference to their proposal for production of literature as stated in their memorandum received in the Ministry, 1 February 1950’, in ‘Idara-e Talim-o-Taraqqi Jamia Millia, Delhi—Grant for the publication of adult education literature’.

²²¹ Annual report of the Vice-Chancellor (1964), p. 13. See also ‘Intention of Dr Zakir Husain of Jamia Millia Islamia’.

²²² On these internal tensions, see Mohammad Talib, ‘Jamia Millia Islamia: Career of Azad Talim’, in Hasan (ed.), Knowledge, power and politics, pp. 156–183.

²²³ Nehru to Azad, 12 Nov. 1952, Premchand Archives, JMI.

²²⁴ ‘Recognition of the degrees and diplomas of the Jamia Millia Islamia Delhi’, NAI, ME, 73-216/49-D3.

²²⁵ ‘Recognition of the Sr Diploma of Arts[,] Sr Diploma of Crafts of the Institute of Arts Education, Jamia Millia, New Delhi’, NAI, ME, 18-49/56-D.1.

²²⁶ According to Abduhu, the budget for education originally corresponded to only 1 per cent of the budget of the central government after independence. Abduhu, The educational ideas, p. 96.

²²⁷ Towards an enlightened and humane society. Report of the Committee for Review of National Policy on Education, 1986 (New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, 1990), p. ivGoogle Scholar.

²²⁸ Shani, ‘Gandhi, citizenship’.

²²⁹ Ibid.

²³⁰ Prakash, Another reason, p. 234.

²³¹ On the differences between Gandhi and Nehru, and on Nehru's attempts to appropriate Gandhi's legacy within a state-centric framework, see Chatterjee, Partha, ‘The constitution of Indian nationalist discourse’, in his Empire and nation: essential writings, 1985–2005 (Ranikhet: Permanent Black, 2010), pp. 37–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²³² See, for instance, ‘The Jamia Millia’, 10 September 1946, SWJN, Vol. 1, Gopal, S. (ed.) (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 385–386Google Scholar; Note to the Ministry of Education, 9 January 1953, SWJN, Vol. 21, pp. 143–144.

²³³ Letter to Zakir Husain, 16 February 1948, SWJN, Vol. 5, pp. 560–561.

²³⁴ See Nehru's letters to Mohanlal Saksena (13 August 1949), to Mehr Chand Khanna (2 July 1949), and to Delhi's chief minister (15 August 1949), SWJN, Vol. 12, S. Gopal (ed.) (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 131–132, 142, 319–320.

²³⁵ Sherman, Muslim belonging, p. 122.

²³⁶ Ibid., p. 134.

²³⁷ Friedmann, Yohanan, ‘The Jam'iyyat al-‘Ulama’-i Hind in the wake of partition’, Asian and African Studies, 11 (1976), pp. 182–184Google Scholar. Likewise, Qasim Zaman argues that the Indian government recognized ‘ulama as ‘legitimate, indeed authoritative, representatives of Muslim popular opinion’. Zaman, Q., Ulama in contemporary Islam. Custodians of change (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 169Google Scholar.

²³⁸ Metcalf, Barbara, ‘Observant Muslims, secular Indians: the political vision of Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, 1938–57’, in Chakrabarty, Dipesh, Majumdar, Rochona and Sartori, Andrew (eds), From the colonial to the post-colonial. India and Pakistan in transition (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 96–118Google Scholar, and Metcalf, Barbara, Husain Ahmad Madani. The jihad for Islam and India's freedom (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009)Google Scholar.

²³⁹ Husain, Abid, The Way of Gandhi and Nehru (London: Asia Publishing House, 1961), p. 171Google Scholar.

²⁴⁰ Husain, The Destiny of Indian Muslims, p. 174.

²⁴¹ Vice-chancellor's annual report, Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 3.

²⁴² Husain, The Destiny of Indian Muslims, p. 7.

²⁴³ Ibid., p. 11.

²⁴⁴ See the Report of the University Education Commission (1948–1949) (Simla: Ministry of Education), p. 295Google Scholar. This Commission was headed by Radhakrishnan.

²⁴⁵ Husain, The Destiny of Indian Muslims, p. 11.

²⁴⁶ Ibid., p. 163.

²⁴⁷ Vice-Chancellor's annual report, Jamia Millia Islamia, p. 3.

²⁴⁸ On the efforts of state authorities to contain religious differences after partition, see Bajpai, Rochana, Debating difference. Group rights and liberal democracy in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁴⁹ Jawaharlal Nehru, Convocation address at AMU on 24 January 1948, SWJN, Vol. 5, pp. 24–27.

²⁵⁰ The Ministry of Education clearly conceived of AMU and BHU as a pair: the decision to grant the two institutions central university status was taken at the same time and the two university bills, almost identical, were discussed simultaneously in parliament. See, for instance, ‘Banaras Hindu University, Amendment Act (1951)’.

²⁵¹ Nehru, Convocation address at AMU on 24 January 1948, SWJN, Vol. 5, pp. 24–27.

²⁵² Zakir Husain to Rajendra Prasad, 19 July 1950, ‘Aligarh Muslim University—Request for additional grant for development’, NAI, ME, 41-90/50-D.3.

²⁵³ This is the expression used by Jinnah in the mid-1940s in reference to Aligarh students’ support for the Muslim League. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Speech at Aligarh Muslim University, 10 March 1941, cited in Abbas, ‘Narratives of belonging’, p. 129.

²⁵⁴ Asad, Formations of the secular.

²⁵⁵ Roy, Srirupa, Beyond belief. India and the politics of postcolonial nationalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007), p. 18Google Scholar.

²⁵⁶ Similarly, Chatterjee argues that, with Nehru's accession to power, ‘nationalism has now constituted itself into a state ideology. It has appropriated the life of the nation into the life of the state.’ Chatterjee, ‘The constitution of Indian nationalist discourse’, p. 58.

²⁵⁷ Jayal underlines the gap between the ‘strong rhetorical commitment’ of the state and its limited achievements in terms of social policy. Jayal, N. J., Citizenship and its discontents. An Indian history (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), p. 164Google Scholar.

²⁵⁸ See, among others, Sherman, Muslim belonging; Gould, Hindu nationalism; Hasan, Legacy of a divided nation, p. 150.