Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T22:11:58.549Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Diplomatic Counter-revolution: Indonesian diplomacy and the invasion of East Timor

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 June 2020

MATTIAS FIBIGER Open the ORCID record for MATTIAS FIBIGER [Opens in a new window]
MATTIAS FIBIGER*
Affiliation:
Harvard Business School Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article reinterprets the Indonesian invasion of East Timor as a ‘diplomatic counter-revolution’. Using the central archival records of the Suharto regime for the first time in English-language scholarship, it unearths a diplomatic campaign undertaken by agents of the New Order to secure international support for an Indonesian invasion of East Timor. This diplomatic offensive spanned Southeast Asia, non-aligned and Afro-Asian networks, Western capitals, international institutions and media circuits, and global capital markets. Its success tipped the balance of power in Jakarta away from advocates of restraint like Adam Malik and towards advocates of annexation like Ali Murtopo. The diplomacy behind Indonesia's invasion of East Timor reveals that the architecture of globalization, lauded by some scholars as inherently liberatory, was in fact agnostic, capable of being turned to counter-revolutionary purposes in addition to revolutionary ones. And it suggests that diplomacy itself had been counter-revolutionized, as geopolitical and geoeconomic change combined to make the international system, particularly the states of the Global South, far more hostile to state-making claims and transformative world-making projects.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 2 , March 2021 , pp. 587 - 628
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Contact sheet, 6 December 1975, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/whphotos/A7505_NLGRF.jpg [accessed 3 December 2018].

2 See Simpson, Bradley, Economists with guns: authoritarian development and U.S.-Indonesian relations, 1960–1968 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 6 December 1975, Indonesia—State Department Telegrams to SECSTATE—NODIS (3), National Security Adviser—Presidential Country Files for East Asia and the Pacific (hereafter NSC-EA Presidential), Gerald Ford Presidential Library (hereafter GFPL).

4 See Chega! Laporan komisi penerimaan, kebenaran, dan rekonsiliasi (CAVR) di Timor-Leste [Enough! Report of the commission for reception, truth, and reconciliation (CAVR) in Timor-Leste] (Jakarta: KPG, 2010).

5 Hanhimäki, Jussi, The flawed architect: Henry Kissinger and American foreign policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 401–403CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Simpson, Bradley, ‘“Illegally and beautifully”: The United States, the Indonesian invasion of East Timor and the international community, 1974–76’, Cold War History 5, no. 3, August 2005, pp. 282, 295CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Connelly, Matthew, A diplomatic revolution: Algeria's fight for independence and the dawn of the post-Cold War era (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

8 Byrne, Jeffrey James, Mecca of revolution: Algeria, decolonization, and the Third World order (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 See Dietrich, Christopher, Oil revolution: anticolonial elites, sovereign rights, and the economic culture of decolonization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Getachew, Adom, Worldmaking after empire: the rise and fall of self-determination (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019)Google Scholar.

10 For analysis of the colonial period, see Kammen, Douglas, Three centuries of conflict in East Timor (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Program of the Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor (Fretilin), in Facts about Fretilin: a collection of statements made by Fretilin itself (Sydney: Campaign for an Independent East Timor, 1975).

12 Submission to Whitlam, 30 May 1973, in Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australia and the Indonesian incorporation of Portuguese Timor, 1974–1976 (hereafter AIPT) (Carlton: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2000), p. 44Google Scholar; Policy planning paper, 3 May 1974, AIPT, p. 51.

13 Sinar Harapan, 17 June 1974.

14 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 14 August 1974, Central Foreign Policy Files, 1973–1979 (hereafter CFPF 1973–79), Electronic Telegrams (hereafter ET) 1974, Record Group 59 (hereafter RG 59), United States National Archives (hereafter USNA).

15 Ruth McVey, ‘In memoriam: Adam Malik (1917–1984)’, Indonesia 39, April 1985, p. 146.

16 David Webster, ‘Self-determination abandoned: the road to the Webster Agreement on West New Guinea (Papua), 1960–62’, Indonesia 95, April 2013, pp. 9–24.

17 Adam Malik, Mengabdi republik, jilid III: angkatan pembangunan [In the service of the republic, volume III: the development generation] (Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1979), p. 45.

18 Adam Malik, Politik luar negeri Indonesia dipimpin oleh falsafah Pantja-Sila: pidato Waperdam/menlu Adam Malik dimuka sidang DPR-GR pada tanggal 5 Mei 1966 [Indonesian foreign policy guided by Pancasila: speech of Vice Prime Minister/Foreign Minister Adam Malik in front of the DPR-GR on 5 May 1966] (Jakarta: Kementrian Penerangan Direktorat Visuil, 1966), p. 28.

19 Suleiman, Suli, Garis-garis besar politik luar negeri Republik Indonesia [Broad outlines of Indonesian foreign policy] (Jakarta: Direktorat Research Departemen Luar Negeri, 1973), pp. 27–28Google Scholar.

20 Friedman, Jeremy, Shadow cold war: the Sino-Soviet competition for the Third World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lüthi, Lorenz, ‘The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War, 1961–1973’, Journal of Cold War Studies 18, no. 4, Fall 2016, pp. 98–147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 ‘Realigning against a common enemy’, Newsday, 20 September 1973.

22 Malik, Mengabdi republik, pp. 95–108.

23 ‘Katakanlah dengan senyum’, [Say it with a smile] Tempo, 19 January 1974.

24 Government of Indonesia, Rentjana pembangunan lima tahun 1969/70–1973/74 [Five-year development plan, 1969/70–1973/74] (Jakarta: Kementrian Penerangan, 1969), p. 36Google Scholar.

25 See the issues of Government of Indonesia, Nota keuangan dan rancangan anggaran pendapatan dan belanja negara [Financial note and planned revenue and expenditures budget] (Jakarta: Departemen Keuangan, 1969–80).

26 Government of Indonesia, Rencana pembangunan lima tahun kedua 1974/75–1978/79 [Second five-year development plan, 1974/75–1978/79] (Jakarta: Kementrian Penerangan, 1974), pp. 6–15.

27 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 21 October 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

28 Ramadhan K.H., Ibnu Sutowo: saatnya saya bercerita! [Ibnu Sutowo: it's time to tell my story!] (Jakarta: National Press Club of Indonesia, 2008), pp. 249–263, 337–348; for an early exposé of corruption within Pertamina, see the leaked Commission of Four report published in the 18–24 July 1970 issues of Sinar Harapan.

29 Prawiro, Radius, Indonesia's struggle for economic development: pragmatism in action (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 104–108, 111–114Google Scholar.

30 The Witteveen Facility and the OPEC financial surpluses: hearings before the Subcommittee on Foreign Economic Policy of the Committee on Foreign Relations (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1978), pp. 83–112, 178–181.

31 See Sukma, Rizal, Indonesia and China: the politics of a troubled relationship (New York: Routledge 1999), pp. 81–85Google Scholar; Crouch, Harold, The army and politics in Indonesia, rev. ed. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), pp. 337–343Google Scholar.

32 Malik, Mengabdi republik, p. 48; Robinson, Geoffrey, The killing season: a history of the Indonesian massacres (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018)Google Scholar; Melvin, Jess, The army and the Indonesian genocide: mechanics of mass murder (New York: Routledge, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 See Robison, Richard, Indonesia: the rise of capital (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986)Google Scholar; Winters, Jeffrey, Power in motion: capital mobility and the Indonesian state (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Inward Cablegram, Jakarta to Canberra, 16 September 1974, A1838 49/2/1/1, National Archives of Australia (hereafter NAA).

35 Memorandum of Conversation, Sumitro, Sutopo, Suhud, Galbraith, and Monjo, 13 November 1973, POL INDON-US 10-13-72, Box 2377, Subject Numeric Files, 1970-1973, RG 59, USNA.

36 Quoted in Jenkins, David, Suharto and his generals: Indonesian military politics, 1975–1983 (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1984), p. 24Google Scholar.

37 Ramadhan K.H., Soemitro (mantan pangkopkamtib): dari pangdam Mulawarman sampai pangkopkamtib [Soemitro (former Kopkamtib commander): from Mulawarman area commander to Kopkamtib commander] (Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 1994), p. 257.

38 Ali Murtopo, ‘Peace and security in Asia and the Pacific’, May 1976, 211, Sekretariat Wakil Presiden Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX 1973–1978 (hereafter HB IX), Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (hereafter ANRI).

39 Memorandum, Sumitro to Cabinet Ministers, 12 May 1972, 1904, Menteri Negara Bidang Ekonomi, Keuangan, dan Industri, 1966–1973 (hereafter EKUIN), ANRI.

40 Dewan Pertahanan Keamanan Nasional, Lembaran kerdja No. 006/1972: Apresiasi tentang pola hubungan super power dan usaha Indonesia mengamankan kepentingan nasionalnya [An appreciation of the pattern of superpower relations and Indonesia's efforts to secure its national interest], 1284, EKUIN, ANRI.

41 The size of the ethnic Chinese community in East Timor is disputed. See Hull, Terence, ‘From province to nation: the democratic revolution of a people’, in Fox, James and Soares, Dionisio Babo, eds., Out of the ashes: destruction and reconstruction of East Timor (Canberra: ANU Press, 2003), p. 31Google Scholar; for ethnic Chinese inhabitants of East Timor's connections to Taipei rather than Beijing, see ‘Timorous Timor’, Wall Street Journal, 10 February 1975; for their disproportionate suffering after the invasion, see Taylor, John G., Indonesia's forgotten war: the hidden history of East Timor (Atlantic Highlands: Zed Books, 1991), p. 91.

42 ‘Pendatang2 Cina masuk ke Indonesia dari Portugal’, [Chinese migrants enter Indonesia from Portugal] Berita Harian, 24 June 1974.

43 Risalah putusan-putusan dan petunjuk-petunjuk Presiden dalam sidang kabinet paripurna pada tanggal 27 Nopember 1973 [Minutes of the President's decisions and instructions in a plenary session of the Cabinet on 27 November 1973], 225, HB IX, ANRI.

44 Telegram, SecState WashDC to All East Asian and Pacific Diplomatic Posts, 10 February 1975, ET 1975, CFPF 1973-79, RG 59, USNA.

45 See Crouch, The army and politics, pp. 306–317.

46 Dewan Pertahanan Keamanan Nasional, Lembaran Kerdja No. 006/1972: Apresiasi tentang pola hubungan super power dan usaha Indonesia mengamankan kepentingan nasionalnya, 1284, EKUIN, ANRI.

47 For aid to India in the period in question, see Engerman, David, The price of aid: the economic Cold War in India (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for the annexation of Goa, see Rotter, Andrew, Comrades at odds: the United States and India, 1947–1964 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2018), pp. 180–186Google Scholar.

48 Wanandi, Jusuf, Shades of grey: a political memoir of modern Indonesia (Jakarta: Equinox Publishing, 2012), Kindle locations 2879–2885Google Scholar.

49 Centre for Strategic and International Studies, Analisa previsionil: mengenai Asia pada umumnya, Asia Tenggara pada chususnya [Provisional analysis: about Asia in general, Southeast Asia in particular], January 1972, 2326, EKUIN, ANRI.

50 ‘Tun: the only way to peace’, Singapore Herald, 16 December 1970.

51 Joint Intelligence Organisation, Brief for Visit of Minister of Defence to Indonesia: Indonesian Attitudes to Military Intervention in Portuguese Timor, 4 December 1974, A1838 3038/10/1/2, NAA. Anderson, Benedict, The spectre of comparisons: nationalism, Southeast Asia and the world (New York: Verso, 1998), pp. 132–133; AIPT, p. 129, fn. 1Google Scholar.

52 Soeharto, Pikiran, ucapan, dan tindakan saya: otobiografi seperti dipaparkan kepada G. Dwipayana dan Ramadhan K.H. [My thoughts, words, and actions: autobiography as told to G. Dwipayana and Ramadhan K.H.] (Jakarta: Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada, 1989), p. 317.

53 Risalah petunjuk-petunjuk dan putusan-putusan Presiden pada sidang Dewan Stabilisasi Politik dan Keamanan Nasional [Minutes of the president's decisions and instructions at a session of the Council on Political Stabilization and National Security] (hereafter Polkam), 14 May 1974, 567, HB IX, ANRI.

54 Ramos-Horta, José, Funu: the unfinished saga of East Timor (Lawrenceville: The Red Sea Press, 1987), pp. 41–43Google Scholar.

55 Memorandum to Canberra, 28 June 1974, AIPT, p. 60.

56 Soekanto, ed., Integrasi: kebulatan tekad rakyat Timor Timur [Integration: the determination of the people of East Timor] (Jakarta: Yayasan Parisekit, 1976), p. 103.

57 Report by Fisher, July 1974, AIPT, p. 75.

58 Soekanto, Integrasi, pp. 103–109.

59 Conboy, Ken, Kopassus: inside Indonesia's special forces (Jakarta: Equinox Publishing, 2003)Google Scholar, Kindle Locations 3305 and 3403.

60 Inward Savingram, Jakarta to Canberra, 4 September 1974, A1838 49/2/1/1, NAA.

61 See the documents in AIPT, pp. 57–71.

62 Policy Planning Paper, 3 May 1974, AIPT, pp. 50–51.

63 Gough Whitlam, ‘Election speech’, 1 October 1969, http://electionspeeches.moadoph.gov.au/speeches/1969-gough-whitlam [accessed 11 September 2018]; Cablegram from Furlonger to Whitlam, 2 September 1974, AIPT, p. 94.

64 Cablegram to Canberra, 22 May 1974, AIPT, p. 56.

65 Letter from Furlonger to Feakes, 3 July 1974, AIPT, p. 62.

66 Record of Meeting between Whitlam and Soeharto, 6 September 1974, AIPT, pp. 95–96.

67 Polkam, 10 September 1974, HB IX, 567, ANRI.

68 Cablegram to Canberra, 19 October 1974, AIPT, p. 119.

69 Minute from Arriens to Furlonger, AIPT, p. 80; see also Mount, Frank, Wrestling with Asia: a memoir (Ballan: Connor Court, 2012), p. 269Google Scholar for the claim that CSIS was ‘responsible for all diplomatic and political relations with Australia by-passing the Foreign Affairs Department’.

70 Draft Submission to the Minister, Portuguese Timor: Visit to Australia of Ramos Horta, n.d. [17–19 July 1974], A1838 3038/10/1/2, NAA.

71 Memo, Asisten Wakil Presiden Urusan Pemerintahan to Bapak Wakil Presiden R.I. [Assistant to the Vice President for Governmental Affairs to the Vice President], 26 September 1974, 428, HB IX, ANRI.

72 G. Dwipayana and Nazaruddin Syamsudin, Jejak langkah Pak Harto, jilid III: 27 Maret 1973–23 Maret 1978 [The footsteps of Suharto, volume III: March 27 1973–March 23 1978] (Jakarta: Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada, 1992), pp. 155–156.

73 Polkam, 10 September 1974, HB IX, 567, ANRI.

74 For newspaper coverage, see ‘Reds are blamed for Timor demo’, Straits Times, 28 September 1974; ‘Reds step up activity in Timor’, Straits Times, 12 October 1974; for the statement to the British ambassador, see quotation in Jones, Lee, ASEAN, sovereignty and intervention in Southeast Asia (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p. 70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 See Official Gazette, 6 May 1974 and 10 June 1974; Sagisag ng Pangulo ng Pilipinas, Diplomatic agenda of Philippine presidents, 1946–1985 (Manila: Foreign Service Institute, 1985)Google Scholar; News Form, Pangkopkamtib to Wakil Presiden et al., 1973, 532, HB IX, ANRI; Laporan delegasi Indonesia ke Konperensi Tingkat Tinggi Islam kedua di Lahore, Pakistan, 18–24 Pebruari 1974 [Report of the Indonesian Delegation to the Second Islamic Conference in Lahore, Pakistan, 18–24 February 1974], 178, HB IX, ANRI.

76 Mount, Wrestling with Asia, p. 273.

77 Joint Intelligence Organisation, Brief for Visit of Minister of Defence to Indonesia: Indonesian Attitudes to Military Intervention in Portuguese Timor, 5 December 1974, A1838, 3038/10/1/2, NAA; Soekanto, Integrasi, pp. 155–157.

78 Telegram, Jakarta to Port Louis, 22 November 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA; Telegram, Lagos to Jakarta, 13 December 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

79 Westad, Odd Arne, The global Cold War: Third World interventions and the making of our times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 220CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 Inward Cablegram, Jakarta to Canberra, 25 September 1974, A1838 49/2/1/1, NAA; ‘Malik and Soares to discuss Timor’, Straits Times, 20 September 1974; Cablegram to Canberra, 26 September 1974, AIPT, p. 113.

81 Polkam, 8 October 1974, 567, HB IX, ANRI.

82 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 10 October 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

83 ‘Where Timor's future lies—by Malik’, Straits Times, 4 December 1974.

84 See, for example, Telegram, Jakarta to State, 1 May 1974, ET 1974, CFPF, 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA; Letter from Joseph to Cooper, 29 January 1975, AIPT, p. 164.

85 Soekanto, Integrasi, pp. 116–135; Alatas, Ali, The pebble in the shoe: the diplomatic struggle for East Timor (Jakarta: Aksara Karunia, 2006), p. 3Google Scholar.

86 Ramos-Horta, Funu, pp. 36–37.

87 Leach, Michael, Nation-building and national identity in Timor-Leste (New York: Routledge, 2017), pp. 56–69Google Scholar.

88 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 25 October 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

89 Memorandum to Jakarta, 13 December, 1974, AIPT, p. 155; Telegram, Surabaya to State, 24 January 1975, ET 1975, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

90 AIPT, p. 72, fn. 1.

91 Conboy, Kopassus, Kindle location 3302–3310.

92 Minute from Arriens to Furlonger and Dan, 30 September 1974, AIPT, p. 115.

93 King, Peter, West Papua and Indonesia since Suharto: independence, autonomy or chaos? (Sydney: UNSW Press, 2004), p. 28Google Scholar; see also Drooglever, Pieter, An act of free choice: decolonisation and the right to self-determination in West Papua, trans. Stanton, Theresa, van Yperen, Maria, and de Jager, Marolijn (New York: OneWorld, 2009)Google Scholar.

94 Yoga Sugama, Progress Report: Bulan Januari 1975 [Progress Report: January 1975], 29 January 1975, HB IX, 589, ANRI; Yoga Sugama, Progress Report: Bulan Januari 1975 ke-II [Second Progress Report: January 1975], 4 February 1975, HB IX, 589, ANRI; Cablegram to Canberra, 26 October 1974, AIPT, p. 113; AIPT, p. 150, fn. 3; Cablegram to Canberra, 18 March 1975, AIPT, p. 228; ‘Timorous Timor: Portuguese to leave, and the colony isn't sure it wants them to go’, Wall Street Journal, 10 February 1975.

95 Yoga Sugama, Progress Report: Bulan Januari 1975 [Progress Report: January 1975], 29 January 1975, HB IX, 589, ANRI; Yoga Sugama, Progress Report tentang Perkembangan Masalah Hankam di Timor Portugis [Progress Report Regarding the Development of Defence and Security Problems in Portuguese Timor], 17 February 1975, HB IX, 589, ANRI; ‘Question mark over Timor as Lisbon prepares to quit’, The Times of India, 5 October 1974; ‘33-year-old postal worker wants to be king of East Timor’, Hartford Courant, 2 February 1975; ‘Indonesia seen weighing invasion of Portuguese Timor’, Washington Post, 11 March 1975.

96 Soekanto, Integrasi, pp. 134–146.

97 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 23 September 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA; ‘Demo against merger’, Straits Times, 22 September 1974.

98 Hill, Helen, The Timor story (Melbourne: Timor Information Service, 1976), p. 6Google Scholar; Ramos-Horta, Funu, pp. 49–50; Memorandum to Canberra, 7 March 1975, AIPT, pp. 216–217.

99 Yoga Sugama, Progress Report: Bulan Januari 1975 [Progress Report: January 1975], 29 January 1975, HB IX, 589, ANRI; Soekanto, Integrasi, pp. 140–146.

100 Ramos-Horta, Funu, p. 38.

101 See Robinson, Geoffrey, ‘If you leave us here, we will die’: how genocide was stopped in East Timor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

102 Cablegram to Canberra, 13 February 1975, AIPT, p. 183.

103 Conboy, Kopassus, Kindle locations 3336–3355.

104 See the 23, 24, and 27 February 1975 issues of Antara, as well as the 26 February issue of Berita Yudha.

105 ‘Tajuk rencana: Indonesia-Australia & Timport’ [Editorial: Indonesia-Australia and Portuguese Timor], Angkatan Bersenjata, 8 March 1975.

106 ‘Portuguese shockwaves reach Timor Sea’, Christian Science Monitor, 7 March 1975; ‘Timor seen as threat to Indonesia’, Washington Post, 9 March 1975; ‘Red threat in Timor’, New Nation, 27 February 1975; ‘Hard choice in an island troubled by freedom’, Times of India, 27 March 1975.

107 Letter from Whitlam to Soeharto, 28 February 1975, AIPT, pp. 200–202; Record of Conversation between Whitlam, Surono, and Her Tasning, 4 March 1975, AIPT, pp. 208–209.

108 Telegram, Canberra to State, 10 March 1975, Australia—State Department Telegrams to SECSTATE–EXDIS, Box 2, NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

109 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 25 October 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

110 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 6 November 1974, ET 1974, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

111 Memorandum, Smyser to Kissinger, 30 December 1974, Indonesia (1), Box 6, NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

112 Memorandum, Smyser to Newsom, n.d., Indonesia (2), Box 6, NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

113 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 31 March 1975, Indonesia—State Department Telegrams To SECSTATE–EXDIS, Box 6, NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

114 Memorandum of Conversation, Ford, Suharto, Kissinger, and Scowcroft, 5 July 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Indonesian President Suharto, Box 13, National Security Adviser—Memoranda of Conversations, GFPL.

115 The Secretary's Principal's [sic] and Regional Staff Meeting, 12 August 1975, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/doc2.pdf [accessed 11 September 2018].

116 Angkatan Bersenjata, 10 July 1975.

117 Ramos-Horta, Funu, p. 66.

118 Hunt, The Timor story, p. 10.

119 Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily report, 24 April 1975, p. N3.

120 Dunn, James, ‘The Timor affair in international perspective’, in Carey, Peter and Bentley, G. Carter, eds., East Timor at the crossroads: the forging of a nation (London: Cassell, 1995), p. 63Google Scholar.

121 Soekanto, Integrasi, p. 198.

122 Hill, Helen, Stirrings of nationalism in East Timor: Fretilin 1974–1978: the origins, ideologies and strategies of a nationalist movement (Sydney: Otford Press, 2002), p. 139Google Scholar; McDonald, Hamish, Suharto's Indonesia (Blackburn: Fontana, 1980), p. 205Google Scholar.

123 Fretilin, Press Statement, 13 September 1975, in Facts about Fretilin.

124 Dunn, James, Timor: a people betrayed (Sydney: ABC Books, 1996), pp. 146–183Google Scholar.

125 The President's Daily Brief, 18 August 1975, Central Intelligence Agency Electronic Reading Room (hereafter CIA ERR), https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0006014878.pdf [accessed 11 September 2018].

126 Note from Willesee to Whitlam, 20 August 1975, AIPT, p. 320.

127 Cablegram to Canberra, 16 October 1975, AIPT, p. 474.

128 Cablegram to Canberra, 14 August 1975, AIPT, p. 307; Cablegram to Jakarta, 26 August 1975, AIPT, p. 346.

129 Telegram, Jakarta to State, 21 August, 1975, Indonesia—State Department Telegrams to SECSTATE–EXDIS, Box 6, NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

130 Polkam, 10 June 1975, HB IX, 567, ANRI.

131 Memorandum, Roesmin Nurjadin to Suharto, 30 October 1975, 203, HB IX, ANRI.

132 Memorandum, Barnes to Scowcroft, 23 October 1975, Indonesia (3), Box 6, NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

133 Memo, Sudharmono to Hamengkubuwono IX, 18 February 1974, 563, HB IX, ANRI.

134 Badan Koordinasi Penanaman Modal, Laporan Perjalanan ke Amerika-Serikat pada akhir bulan September 1975 dan pada akhir bulan Oktober 1975 [Report on the trips to the United States at the end of September 1975 and October 1975], 10 November 1975, 412, HB IX, ANRI.

135 Benedict Anderson, ‘Exit Suharto: obituary for a mediocre tyrant’, New Left Review 50, March–April 2008.

136 Cablegram to Canberra, 29 September 1975, AIPT, p. 437; Cablegram to Canberra, 30 September 1975, AIPT, p. 439.

137 ‘Big Indonesian attack in Timor reported’, New York Times, 8 October 1975.

138 Submission to Willesee, 14 October 1975, AIPT, 463; Cablegram to Canberra, 16 October 1975, AIPT, p. 473.

139 ‘Indonesia denies attack into Portuguese Timor’, New York Times, 9 October 1975; ‘Timor not UN problem, says Malik’, The Irish Times, 13 October 1975; Cablegram to New York, 10 October 1975, AIPT, pp. 559–561.

140 Cablegram to Canberra, 13 June 1975, AIPT, pp. 276–277; for the ways in which culturalist arguments inflected Global South discourses of human rights, see Burke, Roland, Decolonization and the evolution of human rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

141 Telegram, U.S. Mission U.N. to State, 30 September 1975, ET 1975, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

142 Telegram, U.S. Mission U.N. to State, 11 October 1975, ET 1975, CFPF 1973–1979, RG 59, USNA.

143 Crowl, Samuel, ‘Indonesia's diplomatic revolution: lining up for non-alignment, 1945–1955’, in Goscha, Christopher and Ostermann, Christian, eds., Connecting histories: decolonization and the Cold War in Southeast Asia, 1945–1962 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

144 CIA East Asia Brief, 2 December 1975, CIA ERR, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP86T00608R000300010087-4.pdf [accessed 11 September 2018].

145 Jenkins, Suharto and his generals, p. 24, fn. 22.

146 Hunt, The Timor story, p. 13.

147 Submission to Willesee, 16 October 1975, AIPT, p. 472.

148 Cablegram to Canberra, 19 October 1975, AIPT, p. 489.

149 Cablegram to Jakarta and Lisbon, 29 October 1975, AIPT, 530; Submission to Willesee, 31 October 1975, AIPT, pp. 536–537.

150 Cablegram to Jakarta, 20 November 1975, AIPT, p. 579.

151 Memorandum, Barnes to Scowcroft, 23 October 1975, Indonesia (3), Box 6, NSC-EA Presidential GFPL; Memorandum, Kissinger to Ford, October 30, 1975, NSDM 311—U.S.–Indonesia Consultative Arrangements, Box 61, National Security Council Institutional Files, GFPL.

152 Cablegram to Canberra, 17 August 1975, AIPT, p. 314.

153 Memorandum, Kissinger to Ford, n.d., President Ford's Trip to the Philippines and Indonesia, December 1975 (1), Box 18, NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

154 Telegram, DIA to DINOZ, 8 December 1975, Indonesia (5), NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL; Memorandum, Barnes to Scowcroft, 30 December 1975, Indonesia (6), NSC-EA Presidential, GFPL.

155 Kiernan, Ben, ‘War, genocide, and resistance in East Timor 1975–99: comparative reflections on Cambodia’, in Selden, Mark and So, Alvin Y., eds., War and state terrorism: the United States, Japan, and the Asia-Pacific in the long twentieth century (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), p. 224Google Scholar.

156 See Connelly, A diplomatic revolution; Chamberlin, Paul Thomas, The global offensive: the United States, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the making of the post-Cold War order (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012)Google Scholar; Irwin, Ryan, Gordian knot: apartheid and the unmaking of the liberal world order (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

157 Getachew, Worldmaking, pp. 176–181.

158 Raghavan, Srinath, 1971: a global history of the creation of Bangladesh (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

159 Lydia Walker, ‘Decolonization in the 1960s: on legitimate and illegitimate nationalist claims-making’, Past & Present 242, February 2019, pp. 227–264.