¹ The author wishes to acknowledge with thanks the grant support for this project received from the History Department, University of Melbourne and the American Philosophical Society.

² Chao-ching, Cheng, Chung-kuo shui-li shih (The history of water conservancy in China; Taipei, Commercial Press, 1966);Google ScholarTa-nien, Liu, ‘On the K'ang-hsi Emperor,’ Chinese Studies in History 14, 4: 76–107 (Summer 1981);CrossRefGoogle ScholarTe-jen, Liu, ‘Lun K'ang-hsi ti chinh-ho kung-chi’ (On the Emperor K'ang-hsi's achievements in river management), Fu-yin pao-k'an tzu-liao , K2, 14: 115–20 (1981);Google ScholarHung-ch'ang, Mu, ‘K'ang-hsi yü chih-ho’ (The Emperor K'ang-hsi and river management), Pei-fang Iun-ts'ung 5: 29–32 (1982);Google ScholarHung-k'uei, Shang ‘K'ang-hsi nan-hsun yü chih-li Huang-ho’ (The K'ang-hsi, Emperor's southern tours and Yellow River conservancy), Fu-yin pao-k'an tzu-liao, K2, 16: 111–20 (1981);Google Scholar and his ‘The Process of Economic Recovery, Stabilization and Accomplishments in the Early Ch'ing, 1681–1735,’ Chinese Studies in History 15, 1–2: 19–61 (Fall–winter 1981–1982).Google Scholar

³ Because personal imperial participation in the decision-making process was not significantly altered until the regency in the T'ung-chih reign, references to the emperor in this article assume the Tao-kuang Emperor's direct personal involvement in decision-making and in the administrative process and , as in the preceding reigns, they imply Inner Court influence and advice. Kwong, Luke S., ‘Imperial Authority in Crisis: An Interpretation of the Coup D'etat,’ Modern Asian Studies 17, 2: 221–38 (1983);CrossRefGoogle ScholarPing-k'un, Yü, ‘“Je-ho mi-cha” k'ao-shih’ () () (An analysis of the ‘Secret letters from Jehol’), KKPWYYK I: 3–16, 61 (1982); 2: 70–85 (1982).Google Scholar

⁴ Leonard, Jane Kate, ‘The Court Letter in the Study of Late Ch'ing Imperial Leadership,’ The American Asian Review, 4, 3: 1–28 (fall 1986).Google Scholar The primary sources used in the present paper include public edicts and court letters (secret edicts) in the Record Books of Ordinary Grand Council Affairs (Shang-yü tang fang-pen ) abbreviated SYTFP, and the Record Books of Court Letters (Chiao-pu t'ing-chi tang ), abbreviated TCT, both held in the Ch'ing dynasty archives in the National Palace Museum, Taipei. The public edicts are indicated as SYTFP.P, the final P indicating ‘public’. Chinese dates based on the lunar calendar are used in the citations (although converted to Western dates in the body of the paper) and are written in order of reign year, month, day, following the abbreviation of archival source.

⁵ Elvin, Mark, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (London, Eyre Methuen, 1973), pp. 54–68, 131–9;Google ScholarGander, D., Le Canal Impérial: étude historique et descriptive, Variétés sinologiques no. 4 (Shanghai, Catholic Mission, 1894), pp. 7–13,Google ScholarTwitchett, Denis, Financial Administration under the T'ang Dynasty (Cambridge University Press, 1963), ch. 5.Google Scholar

⁶ Han-sheng, Ch'üan, T'ang-Sung ti-kuoyü Yun-ho (The T'ang and Sung empires and the Grand Canal; Shanghai, 1946);Google ScholarElvin, , Pattern, pp. 124–8, 131–45;Google ScholarHartwell, Robert M., ‘Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750–1550,’ HJAS 42, 2: 365–442 (12 1982);Google ScholarJung-pang, Lo, ‘The Controversy over Grain Conveyance during the Reign of Qubilai Qaqan, 1260–1294,’ FEQ 13: 263–85 (1954).Google Scholar

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⁸ Che-lang, Chang, Ch'ing-tai ti ts'ao-yun (Grain transport during the Ch'ing dynasty), no. 178 (Taipei, 1969);Google ScholarFinnane, Antonia, ‘The Administration of Water Control under the Qing: The Case of Xiahe, 1684–1796’ (paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Adelaide University,May 13–19, 1984), pp. 1–5;Google ScholarHung-K'uei, Shang, ‘Economic Recovery,’ 19–61.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ The selective nature of imperial involvement in aspects of regional administration is an aspect of Ch'ing imperial government that requires more research, but is demonstrated in several recent studies; on the pursuit of ‘literary cases’ in Fisher, Thomas S., ‘Lu Liu-liang (1629–83) and the Tseng Ching Case (1728–33)’ Ph.D. dissertation (Princeton University, 1974); pp. 215–83;Google Scholar on the registration of migrant populations in Leong, S. T., ‘The P'eng-min: Ch'ing Administration and Internal Migration’ (paper presented at biennial meeting of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Adelaide University,May 13–19, 1984) and the purposeful ‘neglect’ of casual trade administration inGoogle ScholarChin-keong, Ng, Trade and Society. The Amoy Network on the China Coast 1683–1735 (Singapore, Singapore University Press, 1983), pp. 55–78, 184–212.Google Scholar Huang Pei also describes the intense involvement of the Yung-cheng Emperor in the drive to expand pao-chia registration to include groups like ‘the mean classes’—an involvement made possible by innovations in the secret communication system that provided for direct and personal communication between the emperor/Inner Court and regional officials. Autocracy at Work: A Study of the Yung-cheng Period, 1723–1735 (Bloomington, Indiana, University of Indiana Press, 1974).Google Scholar

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¹⁵ Polachek, James M., ‘Literate Groups and Literati Politics in Early Nineteenth- Century China,’ Ph.D. dissertation (University of California, Berkeley, 1976), pt 1, ch.4.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Ch'i, ChuChung-kuoyun-ho shih-liao hsuan-chi (Collection of historical materials on the Grand Canal; Pei-ching, Chung-hua shu chu, 1962), pp. 148–78;Google ScholarFinnane, ‘The Administration of Water Control under the Qing,’pp. 1–5.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Ayao, Hoshi, ‘Shin matsu kaun yori kaiun eno tenkai’ (The shift from Canal shipment of imperial rice tax to the sea route at the end of the Ch'ing dynasty) in Toyoshi ronso (Tokyo, Kodansha, 1960). pp. 807–18.Google Scholar Aspects of the crisis, particularly the planning initiatives of those officials who were a part of the ‘Statecraft’ group around Chiang Yu-hsien, are discussed in Polachek, ‘Literate Groups,’ pt I, ch. 4.

¹⁸ Hinton, Harold C., The Grain Tribute System of China, 1845–1911 (Cambridge, Harvard University, East Asian Research Center, 1970), pp. 16–96.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Bartlett, Beatrice, ‘Ch'ing Palace Memorials in the Archives of the National Palace Museum,’ National Palace Museum Bulletin 13, 6: 1–21 (01–02 1979);Google Scholar see also Wu, Communication and ‘Memorial Systems,’ pp. 7–75.Google Scholar

²⁰ Examples of the handling of routine matters: SYTFP.P, 4.1.27; 4.4.4A; 4.4.4B.

²¹ SYTFP.P, 4.1.13.

²² SYTFP.P., 4.3.7.

²³ Wu, ‘Memorial Systems’, pp. 25–33, 61–2.Google Scholar

²⁴ During the 1824–26 crisis, Canal-transport matters bearing on the Canal in Che-chiang province seem in practice to have been managed by governor of Che-chiang.

²⁵ Brunnert, H. S. and Hagelstrom, V. V., Present Day Political Organization of China, translated by Beltchenko, A. and Moran, E. E. (Shanghai, Kelly and Walsh, 1912), pp. 399–400.Google Scholar

²⁶ Ibid., p. 834.

²⁷ Ibid., 414–25.

²⁸ Ibid., p. 422.

²⁹ This weakness stemmed primarily from the effects of population pressure on local institutions. T'ung-tsu, Ch'ü, Local Government in China under the Ch'ing (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 1–9;Google ScholarWatt, John R., The District Magistrate in Late Imperial China (New York, Columbia University Press, 1972), pp. 71–6, 29, 61–5.Google Scholar

³⁰ SYTFP, 4.4.4B. See also 5.11.24A.

³¹ SYTFP. P, 4.3.7; supervision of local officials is also noted in SYTFP, 5.7.3B; 5.7.6; 5.11.24; 6.3.3.

³² SYTFP.P 4.4.4A.

³³ SYTFP.P, 4.1.13; 4.10.25B; 4.10.25C.

³⁴ The reporting of these conditions began in the K'ang-hsi reign. See Wu, Communication.

³⁵ SYTFP, 5.10.IA (progress of grain boats); 5.11.14 (corruption connected with mixing poor quality grain and water with good in the grain boats); 6.1.20 (increasing level of silt in the Yellow River); 6.3.8 (progress of dike work and dredging); TCT, 4.12.18.

³⁶ TCT, 4.12.9; 5.2.20; 5.2.5; SYTFP, 4.12.18; 5.1.23A; 5.1.29B.

³⁷ TCT, 5.2.5; 5.4.2A; 5.5.2; 5.5.10A; 5.5.19A; 5.5.25A; SYTFP.P, 5.4.10.

³⁸ TCT, 5.4. 15A.

³⁹ TCT, 5.4.18.

⁴⁰ TCT, 5.5.19B.

⁴¹ TCT, 5.5.2.

⁴² TCT, 4.9.29.

⁴³ SYTFP.P, 4.11.15; TCT, 4.9.29.

⁴⁴ TCT, 4.9.29.

⁴⁵ SYTFP, 4.10.12.

⁴⁶ SYTFP, 4.10. 16A.

⁴⁷ SYTFP, 4. 10.25A.

⁴⁸ Ibid.

⁴⁹ SYTFP.P, 4.11.15; see also.4.11.19.

⁵⁰ SYTFP.P, 4.1.13.

⁵¹ Aspects of reconstruction policy are described in Polachek, ‘Literate Groups,’ Pt 1, ch. 4.

⁵² SYTFP, 4.10.12; TCT. 4.1 I.26A.

⁵³ SYTFP.P, 4.11.23.

⁵⁴ TCT, 4.11.24A; 4.11.26A.

⁵⁵ TCT, 4.12.3.

⁵⁶ TCT, 4.11.26B; 4.12.3.

⁵⁷ 4.12.3; 4.11.26B.

⁵⁸ Polachek, ‘Literate Groups,’ Pt I, ch.4.

⁵⁹ TCT, 5.1.12A

⁶⁰ TCT, 4.12.21; 5.4.27; SYTFP, 5.2.5; 5.4.2B.

⁶¹ See references in notes 37, 38, 39.

⁶² SYTFP, 5.2.5; 5.4.27; 5.6.6A.

⁶³ SYTFP, 5.2.5; 5.4.2B; 5.4.10A; TCT, 5.5.22; SYTFP, 5.6.6A.

⁶⁴ TCT, 5.4.27 SYTFP, 5.2.5; 5.4.2B.

⁶⁵ TCT, 5.5.22.

⁶⁶ SYTFP, 5.4.10A.

⁶⁷ SYTFP. 5.6.6A.

⁶⁸ TCT, 4.11.24B; 4.10.16B.

⁶⁹ Pei, Huang, ‘Aspects of Ch'ing Autocracy: An Institutional Study, 1644–1735,’ Tsing-hua Journal of Chinese Studies, New Series VI, nos 1–2: 105–48 (12 1967).Google Scholar This is also seen in Fairbank, John K., Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast. The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854 (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1953; 1964), pp. 3–53;Google ScholarPao-chao, Hsieh, The Government of China (1644–1911), 1925 (New York, Octagon, 1966), pp. 1–44.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ SYTFP, 4.10.12; 4.12.24; 5.1.29A; TCT, 4.10.26A; 4.12.9; 4.12.27; 4.12.21.

⁷¹ TCT, 4.10.16B; 4.11.26A; 4.12.5; 4.12.15.

⁷² SYTFP, 4.10.16B.