¹ Started in 2009 by the United Kingdom-based Charities Aid Foundation, the Index measures the number of people giving money, volunteering time, and helping strangers in 135 countries.

² CAF, 2014, https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/caf_wgi2014_report_1555awebfinal.pdf, [accessed 6 December 2017].

³ SICP, Investing in Ourselves: Giving and Fund Raising in India. Sampradaan Indian Centre for Philanthropy, New Delhi, 2001.

⁴ See, for example, Srivastava, S. S., Tandon, R., Gupta, S. K., and Dwivedi, S. K., Dimensions of Giving and Volunteering in West Bengal, Society for Participatory Research in Asia, 2003Google Scholar, http://ccss.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/09/India_PRIA_WP_7_2003.pdf, [accessed 6 December 2017]; Osella, F., Stirrat, R., and Widger, T., ‘Charity, philanthropy and development in Colombo, Sri Lanka’, in New Philanthropy and Social Justice, Morvaridi, B. (ed.), Policy Press, Bristol, 2015, pp. 137–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁰ http://givingpledge.org, [accessed 6 December 2017].

¹¹ I draw inspiration here from Marcel Mauss's analysis of exchange in which he argues that pre-modern modalities of gift giving are always driven by and entangled with passions and interests (Mauss, M., The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies, Routledge, London, 1990 [1925]Google Scholar). See also Bourdieu's analysis of ‘symbolic capital’ in which he puts to rest the notion that gift exchange might be motivated solely by disinterest or altruism (Bourdieu, P., Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1998Google Scholar). For a more recent and heterodox formulation of a theory of gift exchange driven by the dynamic logic of interest, see Lordon, F., L'intérêt Souverain: Essai d'Anthropologie Économique Spinoziste, Editions La Découverte, Paris, 2006Google Scholar.

¹² Amongst the most inspiring and seminal studies of the politics of giving in South Asia, see Marriott, M., ‘Caste ranking and food transactions: a matrix analysis’, in Structure and Change in Indian Society, Singer, M. and Cohn, B. S. (eds), Aldine, Chicago, 1968, pp. 133–71Google Scholar; Appadurai, A., ‘Gastro-politics in Hindu South Asia’, American Ethnologist, vol. 8, no. 3, 1981, pp. 494–511CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Parry, J., ‘The gift, the Indian gift and the “Indian gift”’, Man (n.s.), vol. 21, no. 3, 1986, pp. 453–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Parry, J., ‘On the moral perils of exchange’, in Money and the Morality of Exchange, Parry, J. and Bloch, M. (eds), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989, pp. 64–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Raheja, G. G., The Poison in the Gift: Ritual, Prestation, and the Dominant Caste in a North Indian Village, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1988Google Scholar; Dirks, N. B., The Hollow Crown: Ethnology of an Indian Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987Google Scholar; Mines, M., Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a more recent critical appraisal of the debate on genealogies of religious/ritual giving, see Heim, M., Theories of the Gift in South Asia: Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain Reflections on Dana, Routledge, New York, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁵ See, typically, Weber, M., Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1978Google Scholar, pp. 581ff.; or more recently re-rehearsed in Kahl, S., ‘The religious roots of modern poverty policy: Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed Protestant traditions compared’, Archives Européennes de Sociologie, vol. 46, no. 1, 2005, pp. 91–126CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hénaff, M., ‘Religious ethics, gift exchange and capitalism’, European Journal of Sociology, vol. 44, no. 3, 2003, pp. 293–324CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Haskell, T., ‘Capitalism and the origins of the humanitarian sensibility’, American Historical Review, vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 339–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar (part 1) and vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 547–66 (part 2); and McCloskey, D. A., ‘Bourgeois virtue and the history of P and S’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 58, no. 2, 1998, pp. 297–317CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a critique, see Safley, T., ‘Introduction’, in The Reformation of Charity: The Secular and the Religious in Early Modern Poor Relief, Safley, T. (ed.), Brill, Leiden, 2003, pp. 1–14Google Scholar; Muehlebach, A., The Moral Neoliberal: Welfare and Citizenship in Italy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2012, pp. 3–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Fassin, D., Humanitarian Reason: A Moral History of the Present, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2012, pp. 1–20Google Scholar.

¹⁶ In his reading of Mauss's seminal theorization of gift giving, Parry argues that ‘while Mauss is generally represented as telling us how in fact the gift is never free, what I think he is really telling us is how we have acquired a theory that it should be’ (Parry, ‘The gift’, p. 458). For critical studies stressing the inevitably ‘interested’ nature of contemporary philanthropy, see Silber, I., ‘Modern philanthropy: reassessing the viability of a Maussian perspective’, in Marcel Mauss: A Centenary Tribute, James, W. and Allen, N. (eds), Berghahn, Oxford, 1998, pp. 134–50Google Scholar; and Herman, A., The ‘Better Angels’ of Capitalism: Rhetoric, Narrative, and Moral Identity among Men of the American Upper Class, Westview Press, Boulder, 1999.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Economists in particular have struggled to incorporate altruism into models or theories of self-interested maximization, eventually resorting to notions of interdependent utility functions whereby one's happiness is realized not only by forwarding individual self-interest, but also by promoting the welfare of others; see, for example, Sugden, R., ‘On the economics of philanthropy’, The Economic Journal, vol. 92, no. 366, 1982, pp. 341–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Bag, P. K. and Roy, S., ‘Repeated charitable contributions under incomplete information’, The Economic Journal, vol. 118, no. 525, 2008, pp. 60–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁹ Charitable donations to the Battuti Fraternity of Treviso, for instance, were rewarded with indulgences that would shorten the donor's time in purgatory (D'Andrea, D. M., Civic Christianity in Renaissance Italy: The Hospital of Treviso, 1400–1530, University Rochester Press, Rochester, NY, 2007Google Scholar). See also Rosenthal, J. T., The Purchase of Paradise: Gift Giving and the Aristocracy 1307–1485, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1972CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Henderson, J., Piety and Charity in Late Medieval Florence, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1987Google Scholar; Psotles, D., ‘Small gifts, but big rewards: the symbolism of some gifts to the religious’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 27, no. 1, 2001, pp. 23–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Nichols, T., ‘Secular charity, sacred poverty: picturing the poor in Renaissance Venice’, Art History, vol. 30, no. 2, 2007, pp. 139–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²⁶ Himmelfarb, G., Poverty and Compassion: The Moral Imagination of the Late Victorians, Knopf, New York, 1991Google Scholar; and Ashcraft, R., ‘Lockean ideas, poverty, and the development of liberal political theory’, in Early Modern Conceptions of Property, Brewer, J. and Staves, S. (eds), Routledge, London, 1996, pp. 43–61Google Scholar. See also Kahl, ‘The religious roots’; and Hénaff, ‘Religious ethics’.

²⁷ See, for example, McCarthy, K. D., American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society, 1700–1865, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2003CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haskell, ‘Capitalism’. See also Rajak, D., In Good Company: An Anatomy of Corporate Social Responsibility, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2001Google Scholar.

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³³ Henderson, Piety and Charity.

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³⁹ Ibid., p. 168.

⁴⁰ Ibid., p. 277.

⁴¹ For a discussion of colonial representations of ‘native charity’ as wasteful and excessively ‘personalized and ritualistic’, see Sharma, S., Famine, Philanthropy and the Colonial State: North India in the Early Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2001CrossRefGoogle Scholar, pp. 135ff. See also Watt, A., ‘Philanthropy and civilizing missions in India, c. 1820–1960’, in Civilizing Missions in Colonial and Postcolonial South Asia: From Improvement to Development, Watt, Carey and Mann, Michael (eds), Anthem, London, 2011, pp. 271–317Google Scholar.

⁴² Historians have explored extensively pre-colonial Hindu kingship, as well as its transformation resulting from the expansion of Muslim polities, and colonial penetration. Amongst the most inspiring work, see especially Stein, B., Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1980Google Scholar; Appadurai, A., Worship and Conflict under Colonial Rule: A South Indian Case, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1981CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Price, P. G., Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996Google Scholar; Dirks, The Hollow Crown; Bayly, S., Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004Google Scholar.

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⁹⁹ Birla, this volume, p. 162.

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¹⁰¹ Markovits, C., The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750–1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rudner, D. W., Caste and Capitalism in Colonial India: The Nattukottai Chettiars, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994Google Scholar; Marsden, M., Trading Worlds: Afghan Merchants Across Modern Frontiers, Hurst, London, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁰⁷ Typically in public appeals for blood and organs donation. See Copeman, Veins of Devotion; Simpson, ‘Blood rhetorics’; L. Cohen, ‘The other kidney: biopolitics beyond recognition’, in Commodifying Bodies, N. Scheper-Hughes and L. Wacquant (eds), Sage, London, 2002, pp. 9–30.

¹⁰⁸ Bornstein, E., Disquieting Gifts: Humanitarianism in New Delhi, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2012Google Scholar; Srivastava et al., Dimensions of Giving; Osella et al., ‘Charity, philanthropy and development’.

¹⁰⁹ Appadurai, A., ‘Topographies of the self: praise and emotion in Hindu India’, in Language and the Politics of Emotion, Lutz, A. C. and Abu-Lughod, L. (eds), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 92–112Google Scholar; Staples, J., ‘Begging questions: leprosy and alms collection in Mumbai’, in Livelihoods at the Margins: Surviving the City, Staples, J. (ed.), Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA, 2007, pp. 163–86.Google Scholar

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¹¹⁶ Sundar, P., Giving with a Thousand Hands: The Changing Face of Indian Philanthropy, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2017CrossRefGoogle Scholar, pp. 171ff.

¹¹⁷ Ciotti, M., ‘Resurrecting seva (social service): dalit and low-caste women party activists as producers and consumers of political culture and practice in urban north India’, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 71, no. 01, 2012, p. 151CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the gendered genealogy of the notion of seva, see Watt, Serving the Nation.

¹¹⁸ Ciotti, ‘Resurrecting seva (social service)’.

¹¹⁹ Dyahadroy, S., ‘Exploring gender, hindutva and seva’, Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 44, no. 17, 2009, pp. 65–73.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ See Ambedkar's critique of the hierarchical ideology underpinning Gandhian seva, discussed in Srivatsan, R., ‘Concept of “seva” and the “sevak” in the freedom movement’, Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 41, no. 5, 2006, pp. 427–38.Google Scholar

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