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³ Besides Confucian ethics and the good will of imperial rulers, another major aim was to reduce the conflicts on the frontiers to as little as possible, for the sake of stability.

⁴ Jiann, Hsieh, The CCP's Concept of Nationality and the Work of Ethnic Identification Amongst China's Minorities (Hong Kong: Institute of Social Studies, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1987): 1.Google Scholar

⁵ Hsieh Jiann 24.

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⁷ Harrell 1993, 102.

⁸ Recent studies of ethnic classification include a series of papers in China Information. See Caffrey, Kevin, ‘Who “Who” Is, and Other Local Poetics of National Policy’, China Information 18 (July 2004): 243–274CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gros, Stephane, ‘The Politics of Names’, China Information 18 (July 2004): 275–302CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mackerras, Collin, ‘Conclusion: Some Major Issues in Ethnic Classification’, China Information 18 (July 2004): 303–313CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mullaney, Thomas S, ‘Ethnic Classification Writ Large’, China Information 18 (July 2004): 207–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹ Fei Xiaotong, ‘Guanyu Woguo Minzu de Shibie Wenti (On the Minzu Classification in Our Country)’, Zhongguo Shehui Kexue, No. 1 (1980): 98.

¹⁰ Xiaotong, Fei, ‘Wo de Minzuyanjiu Jingli he Sikao (My Experience and Thoughts on Minzu Studies)’, in Rong, Ma & Xing, Zhou (ed.), Zhonghua Minzu Ningjuli de Xingcheng yu Fazhang (The Formation and Development of Cohesive Force of the Chinese Nation) (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1999): 3Google Scholar. Jianmin, Wang, Haiyang, Zhang & Hongbao, Hu, Zhongguo Minzuxueshi (History of Chinese Ethnology) (Kunming: Yunnan Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1997): Vol. 2, 54.Google Scholar

¹¹ Wang Jianmin, Zhang Haiyang & Hu Hongbao 1997, 51. Fei Xiaotong indeed attended two visiting delegations, both in Southwest and Central China.

¹² Editors, Yunnan Minzu Gongzuo Sishinian (The Forty Years of the Minzu Works in Yunnan) (Kunming: Yunnan Minzu Chubanse, 1994): 124.

¹³ Ibid. 125.

¹⁴ Ibid.

¹⁵ Yao, Ma, ‘Review of the Nationality Classification Investigation of Yunnan’, in Yearbook of Chinese Nationality Studies (1999) (Beijing: Minzu Press, 2000): 60.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Yao, Ma, ‘Zhou Baozhong yu Yunnan Tongzhan Gongzuo yu Minzu Gongzuo (Zhou Baozhong and the United Front Works and Minzu Works in Yunnan)’ in Ma Yao Xueshu Lunzhu Zixuanji (Self-Selected Works of Ma Yao) (Kunming: Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe, 1998): 861–881.Google Scholar

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²⁰ Wang Jianmin, Zhang Haiyang, & Hu Hongbao 1997, 54.

²¹ Ma Yao 2000, 60.

²² Ma Yao 2000, 60–61.

²³ Ma Yao 2000, 61. Ma Yao's experience was not an exception. Similar cases occurred to other working teams too. See Lianfang, Wang, Wang Lianfang Yunnan Minzugongzuo Huiyi (My Experience of Yunnan Minzu Affairs) (Kunming: Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe, 1999): 16Google Scholar. Wang was a senior cadre on minzu works in Yunnan.

²⁴ Guangxue, Huang, ‘Woguo de Minzu Shibie (Minzu Identification in Our Country)’ in Guangxue, Huang and Lianzhu, Shi (ed.), Zhongguo de Minzu Shibie (Minzu Identification in China) (Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe, 1995): 366.Google Scholar

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²⁶ Lin Yaohua 1984.

²⁷ Lin Yaohua 1984, 5–6.

²⁸ Lianzhu, Shi, Chapter Three and Four (pp. 93–173) & Pages 211–217, in Guangxue, Huang & Lianzhu, Shi (ed.) Zhongguo de Minzushibie (Minzu Identification in China (Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe, 1995): 211–217.Google Scholar

²⁹ Lin Yaohua 1984, 7.

³⁰ Shi Lianzhu 1993, 208–218.

³¹ Shi Lianzhu, ‘Zhongguo Minzushibie Yanjiu Gongzuo de Tese (Characteristics of China's Minzu Identification and Study)’, Zhongyang Minzudaxue Xuebao, No. 5 (1989): 18.

³² Ma Yao 2000, 60.

³³ Lin Yaohua 1984, 1. Li Shaoming classifies the registered four hundred odd names of units into eight categories. See Shaoming, Li, ‘Woguo Minzu Shibie de Huigu yu Qianzhan (Review and Prospect of Minzu Identification in Our Country)’, Minzuxue Yanjiu (Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe, Vol. 12, 1998): 201–211.Google Scholar

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³⁶ Ma Yao 1998, 867.

³⁷ For the roles and problems of language, see Charles Keyes, Presidential Address: “‘The Peoples of Asia”—Science and Politics in the Classification of Ethnic Groups in Thailand, China, and Vietnam’, The Journal of Asian Studies 61.4: 1163–1203. Linguistic evidence was the key criterion for western-trained scholars such as Lin Yaohua and Fu Maoyong in the identification and this also differentiates the efforts made by P. R. China and the Qing Empire.

³⁸ Ma Yao 2000, 63.

³⁹ Lin Yaohua 1984; Shi, Lianzhu 1995.

⁴⁰ Diamond, Norma, ‘Ethnicity and the State: The Hua Miao of Southwest China’ in Toland, Judith D. (ed.), Ethnicity and the State (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1995): 58.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Wang Jianmin, Zhang Haiyang & Hu Hongbao 1997, 129.

⁴² Mouyuan, Yi, ‘Wuliushi Niandai Minzu Diaocha de Pianduan Huiyi (Recollections of the Minzu Surveys in the 1950s–60s)’ in Shiyuan, Hao (ed.), Tianye Diaocha Shilu (Records of Field Works) (Beijing: Shekewenxian Chubanshe, 1999): 319.Google Scholar

⁴³ Ma Yao 2000, 65.

⁴⁴ The scale of these ethnic groups differs variously. The Yi, Bai, Hani, Dai and Zhuang, each over 1 million; Miao (Hmong), Lisu and Hui (Muslim) between half million and 1 million; Lagu, Va, Naxi, Yao, Jingpo and Zang (Tibetan) are over 10,000 but under half million; other under 100,000. Right now 52 of the 56 minzus of China can be found in Yunnan. Of the 52, 26 minority minzus have a population over 5,000 and live in concentrated areas. And 16 minzus are living across provincial boundaries; 15 minzus are living across the boundaries and 15 cannot be found in other areas of China. Two thirds of minorities are living along boundaries. In 1998, the minority population was nearly 14 million, about one-third of whole province population, which means that Han Chinese are the majority.

⁴⁵ Shi Lianzhu 1995, ‘Chapter 4’, 157.

⁴⁶ The CCP classifies the indigenous peoples in Taiwan into one category, ‘Gaoshanzu (High Hill Minzu)’, as one of the 55 minority brothers, but ‘Gaoshanzu’ indeed includes several ethnicities. Considering the special role of Taiwan after the unification (if so), it is reasonable to conclude that the CCP would open its door to accept new members. In fact, Fei Xiaotong in his 1980 article listed three reasons to explain that the minzu identification has not been completed, one of which was that no work had been done for the Taiwan indigenes.

⁴⁷ About 800,000 people were left to be identified in 1982. See Fei 1989, 17.

⁴⁸ Harrell, Stevan, ‘Ethnicity, Local Interests, and the State: Yi Communities in Southwest China’, Comparative Study of Society and History 32 (3) (1990): 515–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁵¹ Colin Mackerras 1994, 143.

⁵² Wang Ningsheng, 262–264.

⁵³ Hsieh Jiann 1987, 9.

⁵⁴ Wang Jianmin, Zhang Haiyang & Hu Hongbao 1997, 127–129.

⁵⁵ Almost all Western works more or less mention these problems. For example, see Harrell 1990, 1993, 1995, Brown 1996, Mackerras and Gladney.

⁵⁶ Stevan Harrell, 1993.

⁵⁷ Wu, David Y. H., ‘Chinese Minority Policy and the Meaning of Minority Culture: The Example of Bai in Yunnan, China’, Human Organization, Vol. 49, No. 1 (1990): 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁵⁹ Shi Lianzhu 1995, 146.

⁶⁰ Ma Yao 1998, 867.

⁶¹ Melissa Brown, ‘Local Government Agency: Manipulating Tujia Identity’, Modern China 28.3 (July 2002): 364.

⁶² Ma Yao 1998, 254.

⁶³ Shi Lianzhu 1995, 208.

⁶⁴ Kaup, Katherine Palmer, Creating the Zhuang: Ethnic Politics in China (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 2000).Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Katherine Palmer Kaup 2000.

⁶⁶ Du Yuting 227.

⁶⁷ Ma Rong, ‘Guanyu “Minzu” de Dingyi (On the Definition of Minzu)’, Yunnan Minzuxueyuan Xuebao 17.1 (2000): 12.

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⁷⁰ Stalin 1954, 313.

⁷¹ Fan Wenlan, ‘Zi Qinhan yilai Zhongguo Chengwei Guojia de Yuanyin (Reasons for China Being a Nation since the Qin-Han Period)’, Lishi Yanjiu (1954): 22–36.

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⁷⁴ Ya 1984, 3–14.

⁷⁵ Ya was responsible for the entry of Minzu in Encyclopedia of China (Zhongguo da Baikequanshu) in which he inputs his opinion, but as far as I know, neither did he take active part in the minzu identification project, nor had he much influence on this project. Huang Guangxue's Zhongguo de Minzu Shibie (minzu identification in China) is the only book that introduces and discusses the minzu identification project, in which Ya's opinion is unanimously criticized. This book, which claims to represent only scholarly studies, is in fact sponsored by the state, and because it is the only book that has ever been allowed to be published, I think it definitely represents the official language.

⁷⁶ Liu, E, ‘Chapter 1’ in Guangxue, Huang & Lianzhu, Shi (ed.), Zhongguo de Minzushibie (Minzu Identification in China) (Beijing: Minzu Press, 1995): 48–50.Google Scholar

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⁷⁸ For example, see Colin Mackerras 1994.

⁷⁹ Heberer, Thomas, China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? (Armonk & New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1989): 31–32.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ The degree of Marxist influence on scholars varies individually. Generally speaking, some western educated scholars are relatively conscious of the rigidity of Stalin's four-common, for example, Fei Xiaotong.

⁸¹ Wang Jianmin, Zhang Haiyang, & Hu Hongbao 1997, 112.

⁸² David Wu, ‘Chinese Minority Policy and the Meaning of Minority Culture: The Example of Bai in Yunnan, China’, Human Organization, Vol. 49, No. 1 (1990): 2.

⁸³ Mackerra 1994, 141–142.

⁸⁴ Xiu Shihua, ‘Guanyu “Gongtong Xinli Suzhi” de Sikao (Some Thoughts on “Common Psychology”)’, Zhongyang Minzudaxue Xuebao, No. 1(1995): 48–52.

⁸⁵ Fei Xiaotong 1980.

⁸⁶ Fei Xiaotong 1980. Fei was labelled ‘rightist’ in the 1957 ‘Anti-Rightist Movement’ and disappeared from academy until the late 1970s.

⁸⁷ Fei's address took place in the 1978 National Political Consultative Conference when the Cultural Revolution was just over and the so-called Thought Emancipation had not yet been fully launched.

⁸⁸ Fei Xiaotong 1999, 5.

⁸⁹ Fei Xiaotong 1999, 5–6.

⁹⁰ Fei Xiaotong 1980, 4.

⁹¹ Fei Xiaotong 1999, 5–10.

⁹² In fact, the review of the identification by scholars of China is made case by case, by discussing how a minzu was decided by certain criteria. See Fei Xiaotong 1980, Lin Yaohua 1984, Huang Guangxue and Shi Lianzhu 1995.

⁹³ Shi Lianzhu 1995, 143.

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¹⁰⁰ Joseph Esherick 48.

¹⁰¹ Allen, Barry, ‘Power/Knowledge’ in Racevskis, Karlis (ed.), Critical Essays on Michael Foucault (New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1999): 72.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁴ The earliest is Zhigongtu by Xiao Yan in the Southern Dynasty (420–588).

¹⁰⁵ Journal of Central Nationality University of the 1990s have attributed most of their inside front covers to drawings of minority clothes, supposedly distinguished from each other, a modern version of Huang Qing Zhigongtu.

¹⁰⁶ Hsieh Jiann 1987, 9.

¹⁰⁷ Ma Yao 2000, 60–61.

¹⁰⁸ Jiang Yingliang 1958.

¹⁰⁹ Recent examples are Wang Zhanying, ‘Qian Sulian yu Zhongguo Minzu Zhengce zhi Bijiao (Comparison of Minzu Policy in China and in Soviet Union)’, Zhongyang Minzudaxue Xuebao, No.1(1997): 18–22; and Mou Benli, ‘Minzuquyuzizhi Zhidu de Bijiao Yanjiu (Comparative Studies of Minzu Autonomous System)’, Minzu Tuanjie, No. 5 (2001): 1–8.

¹¹⁰ Ma Yao 2000, 61.

¹¹¹ Zizhi Tongjian, juan 197, 6215–6216.

¹¹² Ibid, juan 198, 6247.

¹¹³ Shisong, Chen, ed, Sichuan Tongshi (History of Sichuan), Vol. 5 (Chengdu: Sichuan Daxue Chubanshe, 1994): 160–161.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ For the GMD, see Ruey Yih-fu ‘On the Origin of the Tribal Names in Southwestern China with Insect-Beast-Radical Characters’, in China: The Nation and Some Aspects of Its Culture, A Collection of Selected Essays with Anthropological Approaches, Vol. 1 (Zhongguo Minzu jiqi Wenhua Lungao) (Yenwen Publication. CO., LTD.,): 73–117; For the CCP, see Dangdai Zhongguo Minzu Gongzuo Dashiji (Records of Major Events of Minzu Works in Contemporary China Years of Minzu Works) (Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe, 1990): 10. For the Republican legacy on Minzu Shibie, see Thomas S. Mullaney 2004.

¹¹⁵ Stevan Harrell 1995, ‘Introduction’.

¹¹⁶ Recently the minzu regional autonomy (minzu quyu zizhi) has been labelled one of the three fundamental political systems (jiben zhengzhi zhidu) in P. R. China. The other two are People's Congress (renmin daibiao dahui zhidu) and Political Consultative and Multi-Party Cooperative System (zhengzhi xieshang yu duodang hezuo zhidu). I believe that this system would contribute to and thus turn into a part of any pro-democratic reform. In this sense, it would reveal the so-called Chinese characteristics.